Competitive loads and their characteristics. Permissible levels of training and competitive loads of young middle-distance runners - students of training groups of sports schools rozhkov sergey vladimirovich
The dynamics of adaptive rearrangements in the functioning of the athlete's body is due to the systematic use of the optimal load. Under load usually is understood as an increased, in comparison with rest, the amount of functional activity caused by the performance of the exercise(Matveev L.P., 1999). Load exercise is predetermined precisely by muscular work, which causes an increase in the functional activity of the athlete's body systems. However, it should be noted that its value depends on features of the exercises themselves, the individual characteristics of those involved and the features of external conditions.
Currently, there are a number of classifications of loads, the authors of which proceed from the specificity, energy and power of muscle work, pedagogical tasks solved in the process of training, the interaction of work of various predominant directions, and other criteria.
V.N. Platonov (1986, 1997) considers it appropriate to subdivide loads into the following classifications:
By nature - training And competitive, specific And non-specific, local, private And global;
In size - small, medium, large(near marginal), large(limit);
By direction - developing individual motor abilities(speed, strength, coordination, endurance, flexibility) and their components (alactate or lactate anaerobic capacity, aerobic capacity), improving the coordination structure of movements, components of mental preparedness or tactical skill and so on.);
According to the coordination complexity - simple And complex movements performed in stereotypical or variable conditions associated with significant mobilization coordination abilities;
In terms of mental tension - making different demands on the mental capabilities of athletes.
Almost all experts believe that the magnitude of training and competitive loads must be characterized both from the "external" and "internal" sides.
External load side characterized by its externally expressed physical parameters and in the most general form it can be represented by the total volume and intensity of the exercises performed, as well as the coordination complexity of the exercises, psychological tension, environmental conditions.
Volume can be expressed by: exercise time, distance covered, number of repetitions, amount of weights lifted or moved, number of training sessions or competitive starts. To fully characterize the "external" side of the load, its partial volumes are distinguished, reflecting the loads performed with increased intensity or specialized, as well as contributing to the improvement of certain aspects of preparedness (for example, the development of certain qualities and abilities).
Intensity characterized by: the pace of movements, the speed of their implementation, the time to overcome segments of the distance, the magnitude of the weights, the number of approaches and series, the motor and overall density of classes, etc.
However, the load is most fully characterized with internal sides, i.e. on the part of functional shifts in systems
of the body during and after the exercise, as well as the nature and duration of the recovery period (in particular, in terms of physiological, biochemical and other indicators).
Only by comparing these two sides of the load can one adequately judge it, since, on the one hand, “external” and “internal” load indicators are closely interconnected (an increase in the volume and intensity of training work leads to an increase in shifts in the functional state of various body systems, to the development and deepening of fatigue processes), on the other hand, the same external load values can lead to different functional shifts in athletes with different adaptive capabilities, or in the same athlete at different stages of training.
It has been established that the ratio of "external" and "internal" load parameters varies depending on the level of qualification, fitness and functional state of the athlete, his individual adaptive features, the nature of the interaction of motor and autonomic functions (Platonov V.N., 1995, 1997).
With an increase in the preparedness of athletes, there is a decrease in energy consumption when performing a standard load. So, in a state of low fitness, loads of a certain magnitude can be developing, in a state of average fitness, loads of the same magnitude can only be supportive, and in a state of sports form, at best, restorative.
On fig. 7.1 shows the reactions of athletes of various qualifications to standard (adaptive in terms of volume and intensity) work. The load standardized according to the “external” value causes large shifts in the functioning of the body systems of less qualified athletes and their longer recovery.
Along with this, the limiting (large) load in athletes of different qualifications causes a slightly different reaction of functional systems. As a rule, this is manifested in the fact that in high-class athletes with a more pronounced value of the reaction to the limit load, the recovery processes proceed more intensively (Fig. 7.2).
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Rice. 7.1.Reactions of the body of athletes of various qualifications
for the same load (according to V.N. Platonov, 1997): 1- beginner athletes; 2 - athletes of the 1st category; 3 - masters of sports
Rice.7.2. Reactions of the body of athletes of various qualifications
onmaximum load (according to V.N. Platonov, 1997):
1 - masters of sports; 2 - athletes of the II category
Natural forces of nature and artificially created conditions are auxiliary factors influencing the amount of load from performing physical exercises. With their help, the possibility of a directed impact of the load on the body of those involved expands.
Experts do not doubt the fact that the duration of rest intervals between loads can determine its direction. Therefore, the duration of rest pauses between exercises should be strictly planned taking into account the period of recovery of functional shifts caused by a load of a certain magnitude.
Within a separate lesson between exercises, mainly three rest options are used (Matveev L.P., 1991, 1997).
Minimax interval(stimulation or near-stimulation) - the interval between the working (load) phases of the exercise process, which can cause an increased manifestation of operational performance in the next working phase (the effect of working out, the immediate positive consequences). At the same time, the spent resources have already been practically restored, and the body systems are still in increased functional activity.
Tense Interval(supercumulative) - an interval, the duration of which is so short that the next working phase begins under conditions of under-recovery, in the zone of increased functional shifts. Such an internal state for a certain time may not be reflected in a significant change in the external quantitative parameters of the exercises performed, but it requires an increasing mobilization of physical and mental reserves.
Ordinary spacing(complete) interval, the duration of which is commensurate with the relative normalization of the functional state, i.e. restoration of working capacity to the state that was before the exercise, which makes it possible to repeat the work without additional strain on the functions. This mode is often used when improving technical skills.
Compared to rest intervals between exercises rest intervals between individual sessions more significantly affect the formation of the cumulative effect of
temporal adaptation of the body to training loads. Based on the characteristics of the layering of the effects of regular sessions, there are three types of rest intervals between them: supercompensatory, hard and ordinary intervals (L.P. Matveev, 1991, 1997).
Supercompensatory interval commensurate in duration with the time of onset of over-recovery after a sufficiently significant total load preceding the lesson. This allows you to perform a large load in the next lesson. However, these intervals are quite long. If the load of the previous session was close to the limit, then the onset of supercompensation may occur in 36-48 hours. Frequent use of such training modes can lead to a decrease in the number of sessions in the microcycle and a decrease in the magnitude of the overall cumulative effect.
hard spacing- with such an interval, the next lesson occurs against the background of under-recovery of certain parameters of the body's functional systems. This aggravates the cumulation of the trace effect of the previous session with the immediate effect of the next session. Because of this, a more complete mobilization of the body's reserve capabilities occurs, due to which, in the subsequent extended phase of recovery, the deployment of supercompensatory processes may increase. This allows, under appropriate conditions (additional recovery microcycles), to significantly condense the training process, increasing the effectiveness of sports training.
At ordinary interval between classes, the performance of athletes by the beginning of the next lesson has time to return to the same level as it was at the beginning of the previous one. This mode is called support mode.
The optimal combination of load and rest plays a very important role in building a system of exercises, providing the necessary functional shifts and optimal recovery processes to obtain the necessary stable cumulative processes in the athlete's body. These or other variants of the order of alternation of loads and rest constitute one of the structural foundations of various methods of exercise.
?Questions and tasks for self-control
1. What is meant by the term "exercise"?
2. What is the effect of exercise?
3. What exercises are used in physical education and sports?
4. What groups are physical exercises divided into?
5. Give a description of competitive exercises.
6. Give a description of the special preparatory exercises.
7. Give a description of the auxiliary exercises.
8. Describe the general preparatory exercises.
9. Describe the recovery exercises.
40. What is meant by the term "method of sports training"?
11. What characterizes the methods of a strictly regulated exercise?
12. In what variants are methods of strictly regulated exercises used in the development and improvement of sports equipment?
13. In what variants are methods of strictly regulated exercise used in the development of motor qualities?
14. What characterizes and in what cases is the gaming method used?
15. What characterizes and how is the competitive method used?
16. What is meant by the term "load"?
17. By what signs and how is the load classified?
18. What is the "outer" side of the load characterized by?
19. What characterizes the "inner" side of the load?
20. How are the "external" and "internal" sides of the load interrelated?
21. What rest intervals within one lesson can determine the direction of the load?
22. What rest intervals between individual sessions are used to form the cumulative effect of long-term adaptation?
Building Basics
2. Load intensity
1. Training and competitive loads
Load is the effect of physical exercises on the athlete's body, causing an active reaction of his functional systems.
Competitive load is an intense, often maximum load associated with the performance of competitive activities.
Training load does not exist on its own. It is a function of muscle work inherent in training and competitive activities. It is muscular work that contains the training potential, which causes the corresponding functional restructuring on the part of the body.
By their nature, the loads used in sports are divided into training and competitive, specific and non-specific; by size - into small, medium, significant (near-limit) and large (limit); in terms of focus - on contributing to the improvement of individual motor qualities (speed, strength, coordination, endurance, flexibility) or their components (for example, alactate or lactate anaerobic capabilities, aerobic capabilities), improving the coordination structure of movements, components of mental preparedness or tactical skill and etc.; in terms of coordination complexity - for those performed under stereotypical conditions that do not require significant mobilization of coordination abilities, and are associated with the execution of movements of high coordination complexity; in terms of mental tension - into more intense and less intense, depending on the requirements for the mental capabilities of athletes.
All loads according to the magnitude of the impact on the athlete's body can be divided into developing, supporting (stabilizing) and restorative.
Developmental loads include large and significant loads, which are characterized by high impacts on the main functional systems of the body and cause a significant level of fatigue. Such loads according to the integral effect on the body can be expressed in terms of 100 and 80%. After such loads, a recovery period is required for the most involved functional systems, respectively, 48-96 and 2448 hours.
Supporting (stabilizing) loads include medium loads that affect the athlete's body at a level of 50-60% in relation to large loads and require the restoration of the most tired systems from 12 to 24 hours.
Recovery loads include small loads on the athlete's body at the level of 25-30% in relation to large ones and requiring recovery no more than 6 hours.
The choice of one or another load should be justified from the standpoint of efficiency.
In the modern classification of training and competitive loads, there are five zones that have certain physiological boundaries and pedagogical criteria, which are widely used in training practice. In addition, in some cases, the third zone is divided into two more subzones, and the fourth into three, in accordance with the duration of competitive activity and the power of work. For qualified athletes, these zones have the following characteristics.
1st zone - aerobic recovery. The immediate training effect of loads in this zone is associated with an increase in heart rate, 140-145 bpm. Blood lactate is at a resting level and exceeds 2 mmol / l. Oxygen consumption reaches 40-70 of the IPC. Energy is provided by the oxidation of fats (50% or more), muscle glycogen and blood glucose. Work is provided by completely slow muscle fibers (MMF), which have the properties of complete utilization of lactate, and therefore it does not accumulate in the muscles and blood. The upper limit of this zone is the speed (power) of the aerobic threshold (lactate 2 mmol/l). Work in this zone can be performed from several minutes to several hours. It stimulates recovery processes, fat metabolism in the body improves aerobic capacity (general endurance).
Loads aimed at developing flexibility and coordination of movements are performed in this zone. Exercise methods are regulated. The amount of work during the macrocycle in this zone in different types sports is from 20 to 30%.
2nd zone - aerobic developing. The short-term training effect of loads in this zone is associated with an increase in heart rate to 160-175 bpm. Blood lactate up to 4 mmol / l, oxygen consumption 60-90% of the IPC. Energy is provided by the oxidation of carbohydrates (muscle glycogen and glucose) and, to a lesser extent, fats. Work is provided by slow muscle fibers (SMF) and fast muscle fibers (BMF), which are activated when performing loads at the upper border of the zone - speed (power) anaerobic threshold.
Entering into work fast muscle fibers of type "a" are able to oxidize lactate to a lesser extent, and it slowly gradually increases from 2 to 4 mmol / l.
Competitive and training activities in this zone can also take several hours and are associated with marathon distances, sports games. It stimulates the development of special endurance, which requires high aerobic abilities, strength endurance, and also provides work on the development of coordination and flexibility. Basic methods: continuous exercise and interval extensive exercise.
The volume of work in this zone in the macrocycle in different sports ranges from 40 to 80%.
3rd zone - mixed aerobic-anaerobic. The short-range training effect of loads in this zone is associated with an increase in heart rate up to 180-185 beats / min, blood lactate up to 8-10 mmol / l, oxygen consumption 80-100% of the IPC. Energy supply occurs mainly due to the oxidation of carbohydrates (glycogen and glucose). Work is provided by slow and fast muscle units (fibers). At the upper boundary of the zone - the critical speed (power) corresponding to the MPC, fast muscle fibers (units) of the "b" type are connected, which are not able to oxidize the lactate accumulating as a result of work, which leads to its rapid increase in muscles and blood (up to 8- 10 mmol / l), which reflexively also causes a significant increase in pulmonary ventilation and the formation of oxygen debt.
Competitive and training activities in a continuous mode in this zone can last up to 1.5-2 hours. Such work stimulates the development of special endurance provided by both aerobic and anaerobic-glycolytic abilities, strength endurance. Basic methods: continuous and interval extensive exercise. The volume of work in the macrocycle in this zone in different sports ranges from 5 to 35%.
4th zone - anaerobic-glycolytic. The immediate training effect of loads in this zone is associated with an increase in blood lactate from 10 to 20 mmol/l. Heart rate becomes less informative and is at the level of 180-200 bpm. Oxygen consumption gradually decreases from 100 to 80% of the MIC. Energy is provided by carbohydrates (both with the participation of oxygen and anaerobically). The work is performed by all three types of muscle units, which leads to a significant increase in lactate concentration, pulmonary ventilation and oxygen debt. The total training activity in this zone does not exceed 10-15 minutes. It stimulates the development of special endurance and especially anaerobic glycolytic capabilities.
Competitive activity in this zone lasts from 20 seconds to 6-10 minutes. The main method is interval intensive exercise. The volume of work in this zone in the macrocycle in different sports ranges from 2 to 7%.
5th zone - anaerobic-alactate. The near training effect is not related to the indicators of heart rate and lactate, since the work is short-term and does not exceed 15-20 s in one repetition. Therefore, blood lactate, heart rate and pulmonary ventilation do not have time to reach high levels. Oxygen consumption drops significantly. The upper limit of the zone is the maximum speed (power) of the exercise. Energy supply occurs anaerobically due to the use of ATP and CF, after 10 s glycolysis begins to connect to the energy supply and lactate accumulates in the muscles. Work is provided by all types of muscle units. The total training activity in this zone does not exceed 120-150 s per one training session. It stimulates the education of high-speed, speed-strength, maximum power abilities. The amount of work in the macrocycle is in different sports from 1 to 5%.
The classification of training loads gives an idea of the modes of operation in which the various exercises used in training aimed at developing various motor abilities should be performed. At the same time, it should be noted that in young athletes from 9 to 17 years old, certain biological indicators, for example, heart rate, in different zones may be higher, and lactate indicators may be lower. The younger the young athlete, the more these indicators diverge from those described above.
IN cyclic types sports, associated with the predominant manifestation of endurance, for more accurate dosing of loads, the 3rd zone in some cases is divided into two subzones: "a" and "b". Subzone "a" includes competitive exercises lasting from 30 minutes to 2 hours, and subzone "b" - from 10 to 30 minutes. The fourth zone is divided into three subzones: "a", "b" and "c". In subzone "a" competitive activity lasts approximately from 5 to 10 minutes; in subzone "b" - from 2 to 5 minutes; in subzone "c" - from 0.5 to 2 min.
Training loads are determined by the following indicators: a) the nature of the exercises; b) the intensity of work during their implementation; c) the amount of work; d) the duration and nature of the rest intervals between individual exercises. The ratios of these indicators in training loads determine the magnitude and direction of their impact on the athlete's body.
The nature of the exercise. According to the nature of the impact, all exercises can be divided into three main groups: global, regional and local impact. The exercises of global impact include those in which 2/3 of the total muscle volume is involved in the work, regional - from 1/3 to 2/3, local - up to 1/3 of all muscles (V.M. Zatsiorsky, 2009).
With the help of global impact exercises, most of the tasks of sports training are solved, ranging from increasing the functionality of individual systems to achieving optimal coordination of motor and autonomic functions in competitive activities.
The range of use of exercises of regional and local impact is much narrower. However, by applying these exercises, in some cases it is possible to achieve changes in the functional state of the body, which cannot be achieved with the help of exercises of global impact.
2. Load intensity
The intensity of the training load is the total amount of physical activity at a certain speed, i.e. the distance traveled per unit of time is taken into account with a certain power (power voltages per unit of time), with a certain density of classes (the amount of time in the intervals between individual exercises).
The intensity of the load largely determines the magnitude and direction of the impact training exercises on the athlete's body. By changing the intensity of work, it is possible to promote the preferential mobilization of certain energy suppliers, intensify the activity of functional systems to a different extent, and actively influence the formation of the main parameters of sports equipment.
The intensity of work is closely interconnected with the developed power during exercise, with the speed of movement in sports of a cyclic nature, the density of tactical and technical actions in sports games, fights and fights in martial arts.
In different sports, the following dependence is manifested: an increase in the volume of actions per unit of time, or rapid movement, as a rule, is associated with a disproportionate increase in the requirements for energy systems that carry the primary load when performing these actions.
3. Volume of training load
The volume of the training load is the total number of physical exercises performed per unit of time (session, week, month, year). The volume is expressed in specific units: in kilometers (cyclic exercises), in hours (acyclic exercises), the number of exercises performed, kilograms.
In the process of sports training, exercises of various durations are used - from a few seconds to 2-3 or more hours. This is determined in each specific case by the specifics of the sport, the tasks that individual exercises or their complex solve.
To increase alactic anaerobic capacity, the most acceptable are short-term loads (5-10 s) with maximum intensity. Significant pauses (up to 2-5 minutes) allow for recovery. The complete exhaustion of alactic anaerobic sources during exercise and, consequently, an increase in their reserve is caused by work of maximum intensity for 60–90 s, i.e. such work, which is highly effective for improving the process of glycolysis.
Given that the maximum formation of lactic acid in the muscles is usually noted after 40-50 s, and work mainly due to glycolysis usually lasts for 60-90 s, it is loads of this duration that are used to increase glycolytic capabilities. Rest pauses should not be long so that the lactate value does not decrease significantly. This will improve the power of the glycolytic process and increase its capacity.
A prolonged aerobic load leads to an intensive involvement of fats in metabolic processes, and they become the main source of energy.
Comprehensive improvement of various components of aerobic performance can only be achieved with fairly long single loads or with a large number of short-term exercises.
It should be noted that as the long work of varying intensity, not so much quantitative as qualitative changes occur in the activities of various organs and systems.
The ratio of the intensity of the load (the pace of movements, the speed or power of their implementation, the time to overcome training segments and distances, the density of the exercises per unit of time, the amount of weights overcome in the process of developing strength qualities, etc.) and the amount of work (expressed in hours, in kilometers, the number of training sessions, competitive starts, games, fights, combinations, elements, jumps, etc.) varies depending on the skill level, fitness and functional state of the athlete, his individual characteristics, the nature of the interaction of motor and autonomic functions.
4. The nature of the rest and its duration
Rest - the time of compensation for the working resources of the body, partial or complete elimination of fatigue, restoration of the level of operational and (and) general performance. But then rest only becomes an integral phase of the training process, if it does not violate the continuity of the positive effect of reproducible actions, but somehow optimizes the cumulation of the training effect, which is expressed in the formation, development or maintenance of fitness.
The duration of rest intervals is the factor that, along with the intensity and volume of work, determines its predominant focus.
The minimax interval (it is also called stimulation, or near-stimulation) is the smallest interval between the working (load) phases of the exercise process, which can cause an increased manifestation of operational performance in the next working phase (the effect of working out, the nearest positive aftereffect, such as, for example, , with an interval of 3-5 minutes between approaches to the barbell of increasing weight).
An intense interval (supercumulative) is an interval whose duration is so short that the next working phase begins under conditions of increasing or only slightly decreasing functional shifts caused by a previous load (for example, under conditions of an increase in the concentration of lactic acid in the blood, as happens in interval running with submaximal speed with rest intervals decreasing from 5-6 to 1-2 minutes).
Ordinary (full) interval - an interval, the duration of which is proportional in time to the relative normalization of the functional state of the body to the level from which the previous working phase began (that is, almost to the initial level of operational performance). Within the framework of a separate lesson, such an interval can be provided if the working phases of the exercise process are not too long. Otherwise, it has to be introduced not within the framework of a separate lesson, but between classes separated from each other by a considerable time.
In addition to ordinary, other options for intervals are observed between classes, namely, rigid and supercompensatory.
A hard interval is shorter than an ordinary interval and therefore determines, as it were, a compacted training regimen. With such an interval, the next lesson takes place against the background of under-recovery of certain parameters of the functional and morphofunctional state of the body systems, which aggravates the cumulation of the trace effect of the previous lesson with the immediate effect of the next lesson, due to which the deployment of supercompensatory processes can increase in the subsequent extended recovery phase. Hard intervals in sports training are practiced much more often than in other forms of training. This allows, under appropriate conditions, to condense the sports-training process to the maximum (up to the point that the number of training sessions at the highest levels of sports improvement reaches 18 or more in a weekly cycle), thereby increasing the efficiency sports training.
The supercompensatory interval is commensurate in duration with the time sufficient for the onset of supercompensation, superrecovery - after a sufficiently significant total load, when, as a result of responding to it, bioenergetic and other organismal sources of capacity are replenished in excess, its level as a whole increases. Such an interval is introduced between classes that are distinguished by a particularly significant total load, while, as a rule, it is not completely released from other loads: not only passive, but also active rest is provided in the interval, and well-trained athletes also have classes using exercises, different from those that caused cumulative fatigue.
The duration of the rest intervals must be planned depending on the tasks and the training method used. For example, in interval training aimed at primarily increasing aerobic performance, one should focus on rest intervals at which the heart rate drops to 120-130 bpm. This allows you to cause shifts in the activity of the circulatory and respiratory systems, which to the greatest extent contribute to an increase in the functionality of the heart muscle.
According to the nature of the athlete's behavior, rest between individual exercises can be active and passive. With passive rest, the athlete does not perform any work, with active rest, he fills the pauses with additional activity. Effect active rest depends primarily on the nature of fatigue: it is not detected during light previous work and gradually increases with an increase in its intensity. Low-intensity work in pauses has the greater positive effect, the higher was the intensity of the previous exercises.
Compared to rest intervals between exercises, rest intervals between exercises have a more significant effect on the processes of recovery, long-term adaptation of the body to training loads.
Topic 7. Sports equipment
1. Sports technique as a system of movement elements aimed at solving motor problems in the process of competitive activity
4. The structure of training, tasks, means and methods at the stages of training
5. Improving sports and technical skills
1. Sports technique as a system of movement elements aimed at solving motor problems in the process of competitive activity
The technique of sports exercises is the most rational and effective way to perform an exercise, which contributes to the achievement of a high sports result based on the individual characteristics of the athlete and the conditions for performing the exercise.
Physiological basis the technique of human movements is multistructural. It includes both innate functional connections of various body systems, as well as acquired forms of control and interaction between them.
When forming the technical basis of movement, it is necessary to take into account the innate mechanisms of motor activity, as well as the physiological prerequisites for motor coordination.
Technical readiness is the degree of mastering by an athlete of a system of movements (techniques of a sport), corresponding to the characteristics of this sport and aimed at achieving high sports results. Technical readiness cannot be considered in isolation, it is a component of a single whole in which technical solutions are closely interconnected with the physical, mental, tactical capabilities of the athlete, as well as the specific environmental conditions in which the sports action is performed.
In structure technical readiness It is very important to distinguish between basic and additional movements and actions. The basic ones include movements and actions that form the basis of the technical equipment of this sport, without which it is impossible to effectively carry out competitive wrestling in compliance with the relevant rules. Development basic movements is mandatory for an athlete specializing in a particular sport.
Additional movements and actions are secondary movements and actions, elements of individual movements that are characteristic of individual athletes and are associated with their individual characteristics. It is these additional movements and actions that largely form the individual technical manner, styles of the athlete. At the initial stages many years of preparation, in competitions of relatively low-skilled athletes, the level of technical skill and sports result as a whole are determined primarily by the perfection of basic movements and actions. At the level of higher skill, additional movements that determine the individuality of a particular athlete can be a decisive tool in wrestling.
2. Criteria for technical readiness
The effectiveness of the technique is determined by its efficiency, stability, variability, economy, minimal tactical information content for the opponent.
The effectiveness of technology is determined by its compliance with the tasks to be solved and the high end result, compliance with the level of physical, technical, mental and other types of preparedness.
The stability of the technique is associated with its noise immunity, independence from the conditions, the functional state of the athlete.
Technique variability is determined by the athlete's ability to prompt correction of motor actions depending on the conditions of competitive struggle.
The economy of technology is characterized by the rational use of energy in the implementation of techniques and actions, the expedient use of time and space.
The minimum tactical information content of the technique for the opponent is an important performance indicator in sports games and martial arts. Only that technique can be perfect here, which allows you to mask tactical plans and act unexpectedly. Therefore, a high level of technical readiness provides for the ability of an athlete to perform such movements, which, on the one hand, are quite effective, and on the other hand, do not have clearly expressed informative details that unmask the tactical plan of an athlete.
3. Technology of training in the technique of sports motor actions
Teaching motor actions, the technique of physical exercises is considered as a process of sensory-rational cognition and practical mastery of them to the level of memorized actions, i.e. skills. At the same time, the need for a holistic approach to understanding a motor skill, focused both on physiological mechanisms and on the characteristics of
awareness of the skill, and on the characteristic features of its implementation.
In the structure of the learning process, three stages are conditionally distinguished, reflecting the phases of the formation of a motor skill.
The stage of initial learning is the creation of a general idea of a motor action and the formation of a mindset for mastering it; study of new phases and elements; formation of rhythmic structure; prevention and elimination of gross errors.
The stage of in-depth learning - deepening the understanding of the patterns of motor action, improving the coordination structure of the action according to its dynamic and kinematic characteristics, the rhythmic structure of movements.
The stage of consolidation and further improvement is the consolidation of a skill, ensuring its individuality and the necessary variability in relation to various conditions, including those with maximum manifestations of motor qualities.
In the most general way multi-year process technical training of an athlete can be divided into two main stages: basic technical training and in-depth technical improvement, mastering the heights of sports and technical skills.
At the basic stage, initial education sports equipment, a rich basic arsenal of technical skills and abilities is created (elements and bundles are enough simple exercises), on the basis of which further in-depth improvement of the technique of the chosen sport is developed. This process can be characterized as the acquisition by an athlete of general technical readiness.
At the stage of in-depth sports and technical improvement, the athlete’s special technical readiness is improved, the specific content and forms of the athlete’s technical training change.
The content and forms of technical training of an athlete are influenced by the level of his physical development, technical and physical fitness, individual characteristics of the psyche, the structure of technical preparedness of a particular sports discipline, period, macrocycle stage and other features. In complex coordination sports, sports games, martial arts, the improvement of sports equipment or its individual elements occurs continuously throughout almost the entire long-term and annual cycles.
Topic 8. Strategy and tactics
1. Strategy and tactics as components of competitive activity
1. Strategy and tactics as components of competitive activity
Sports tactics is defined as the art of wrestling. In the sports-scientific and methodological literature, this problem was historically covered later than other aspects of sports pedagogical activity. At the first stages of the development of the Soviet system of sports training, questions of tactics were set forth mainly in manuals on fencing, boxing and wrestling and were considered only as ways of disorientation, cunning, which should mislead the opponent during the competition.
Any sport is a unity of technique and tactics. This is most clearly expressed in sports such as martial arts and in sports games. The initiative for tactical actions in them comes from the athlete. He may try to impose on the opponent actions, a form of behavior that is beneficial to him, or deliberately give the opponent this opportunity in order to take decisive and unexpected counter-actions at the right time.
2. Classification of tactical actions
Guided by such characteristics as the nature of the interaction between partners and opponents and the content of the tactical tasks to be solved, all sports can be divided into eight groups.
The first group includes cyclic sports that require mainly endurance (for example, ultra-long, long and medium distance running). They are characterized by the fact that in conditions of competition they have contact with an opponent and interaction of partners is possible. Tactical considerations come down to drawing up a schedule for passing (running, swimming, etc.) the distance and its segments with a uniform or variable distribution of forces, using spurts.
The second group includes cyclic sprint sports (for example, running on short distances). In tactical terms, they are characterized by the fact that the interaction of partners is possible only in relay competitions. Contact between rivals is excluded, as athletes compete on separate lanes. Tactics comes down to determining behavior at the start, to the distribution of efforts in preliminary and final competitions (races, swims, races).
The third group includes acyclic sports of a speed-strength orientation and shooting disciplines (track and field throwing and jumping, ski jumping, weightlifting, shooting disciplines), in which the achieved result is determined by objectively measured indicators. In these sports, there is no interaction with rivals and partners. Athletes perform separately from each other, in the sequence determined by the draw or the regulation of the competition. The tactical plan is reduced to the desire to technically perfectly reproduce the exercise, more intensively, clearly perform a certain part or phase of the movement.
The fourth group includes complex coordination sports, in which the achieved result is determined on the basis of a visual impression, sports and gymnastics, acrobatics, figure skating, diving, synchronized swimming and others. In tactical terms, these sports are characterized by the fact that they do not have direct contact with an opponent. In this group of species, as in the previous one, the main task is to master the art of movement. Sports tactics in them is reduced to a preliminary change in techniques, elements sports exercise and their connections, to finding means of greater complexity and expressiveness of movements.
The fifth group includes martial arts - boxing, different kinds wrestling, fencing, as well as individual sports games: tennis, badminton, table tennis. Sports equipment in them is an external expression of the tactical plan of the athlete. These sports are characterized by the fact that well-thought-out and unexpected tactics for an opponent can bring victory even over a more qualified, technically and physically better prepared athlete.
The sixth group, the most common, includes team sports games. Tactics in them includes a game system, which refers to a certain placement and movement of players, their actions in attack and defense. Tactical actions in team sports games are divided into simple, complicated and complex. Simple actions include performing actions in a situation that does not provide for direct combat sports in conditions of an unlimited shortage of time and space and not an acute game situation; to complicated ones - those in which actions are performed in a situation of direct combat sports, lack of time and space, but not yet in an acute game situation; to complex ones - the performance of actions in the conditions of martial arts with a shortage of time and space, in an acute game situation.
The seventh group includes sports in which a person controls one machine or animal (sailing, equestrian sports, motor racing, etc.).
The eighth group includes all-around. The struggle in them is carried out taking into account the tactics characteristic of each sports discipline included in the all-around. At the same time, during the competition, tactics may change depending on the results achieved in certain types of all-around events, weather conditions and other factors.
3. Organization of collective and individual actions
Tactics, in addition to the characteristics of the sport, is influenced by a number of other circumstances. Among them should be called the rules of the competition. Their change may affect the requirements for the method of performing a sports exercise, the introduction of time limits wrestling.
Other factors influencing the change in sports tactics are the tasks that are set for an athlete or a sports team in certain competitive conditions. For example, in cyclic events, an athlete chooses tactics depending on which of the three tasks listed below is before him: to show the highest possible result; win regardless of the result; show a result or take a place that will give the right to continue the competition (in the quarter-final, semi-final, final). The tactics of the athlete will also depend on the tasks arising from the regulation on team competitions.
The factors influencing sports tactics include external conditions accompanying sports competitions, i.e. competition venues, lighting, meteorological conditions, etc.
4. Improving tactical actions in various conditions
The choice of tactics of an athlete is influenced by the characteristics of the opponent (or opponents): indicators of growth and body weight, sports qualifications, the development of motor, moral, volitional and psychological qualities, the manner of wrestling, etc. All this has the greatest impact on the activities of persons specializing in martial arts and sports games. For example, a boxer's actions depend on which stance the opponent is fighting in (left-handed or right-handed), on his height, arm length, reaction speed, basketball player's actions - on whether the opponent plays in a zone or personal defense system, whether he has an advantage in height, etc. The degree of fame, popularity of an athlete or team can also significantly affect the choice of tactics.
The next, and perhaps the most important factor influencing sports tactics is the state of the athlete himself, his physical data, the level of technical, physical, tactical and mental readiness, the degree of awareness of his own capabilities, understanding the need for endurance, reasonable risk, knowledge of behavior options in various competition conditions, the ability to properly warm up and regulate their mental state. Fatigue also seriously affects the solution of tactical tasks.
5. Tactics training technology
The result of learning tactics is to provide a certain level tactical readiness athlete or sports team.
There are two types of tactical training: general and special. General tactical training is aimed at mastering the knowledge and tactical skills necessary for success in sports competitions V selected form sports: special tactical training - to master the knowledge and tactical actions necessary for successful performance in specific competitions and against a specific opponent.
In the learning sequence sports equipment and tactics, there are some features that depend on the belonging of a given sport to one or another classification group.
In speed-strength sports, the time between the start of training in sports technique and tactics varies from several months to one year or more. In these sports, the question of tactics arises when direct preparation for participation in competitions is underway. In sports such as martial arts and sports games, training in technique and tactics is carried out simultaneously and continuously. In them, technical and tactical training acts as an inseparable process. In team sports, primarily in sports games, tactical training is carried out not only with each athlete and a group of athletes, but also with the team as a whole.
Topic 9. Physical training: general and special. Technology of physical training taking into account the specifics of the sport
1. General and special physical training
1. General and special physical training
Physical training is a pedagogical process aimed at developing the physical qualities and functional capabilities of the organs and systems of the student's body, which create favorable conditions for the perfect mastery of game skills. Physical training should be connected with technical-tactical and competitive training.
Physical training consists of general and special, there is a close relationship between them.
Tasks of the general physical training:
Health promotion, promotion of proper physical development, the formation of posture;
Development of basic motor qualities (speed, strength, coordination abilities (dexterity), endurance, flexibility);
Improving vital motor skills and abilities (in running, jumping, throwing, swimming, etc.);
Strengthening the main links of the musculoskeletal system and muscle groups that carry the main load in a sports game when performing special tasks in training and in competitions.
Means that are used to solve the problems of general physical training can be divided into groups: general developmental exercises, stretching and other sports.
General developmental exercises are aimed at developing speed, strength, coordination abilities, flexibility, endurance; to improve skills in walking, running, jumping, throwing; to strengthen the ligamentous apparatus of the ankle, knee, shoulder and wrist joints, certain muscle groups; for the formation correct posture(especially in children).
Classes in other sports give the desired effect if the trainees master the basics of the technique and tactics of these sports.
Tasks of special physical training:
Development of physical abilities specific to the chosen sport (speed-strength qualities, speed capabilities, strength, endurance);
The development of qualities that determine the success of the student's tactical actions (speed of movement, jumping ability, speed of reaction).
The main means of special physical training are special preparatory exercises that allow you to develop physical abilities specific to a particular sport. This includes exercises for developing the speed of motor reaction and orientation, observation, speed of response, speed of movement (footwork), jumping ability, the ability to quickly move from a static position to movement and stop after a quick movement, strength and speed of muscle contraction involved in the implementation of basic techniques, coordination abilities (dexterity), flexibility necessary for mastering rational technique; special endurance (jumping, speed, power); acrobatic exercises, exercises on technique and tactics.
Preparatory exercises according to the method of execution, they are divided into exercises without objects, with objects stuffed balls, with a skipping rope, rubber shock absorbers, dumbbells and other weights (for links of the body and the whole body), on simulators.
2. Physical ability and coordination training
To designate abilities related to motor activity, different concepts are used: physical, motor, motor, psychomotor, psychophysical, etc.
In theory and methodology physical education the terms physical or motor abilities are used to a greater extent.
In the most general way physical ability can be defined as individual qualities that determine the level of human motor abilities, but not all, but only those that are associated with the success of the implementation of one or another motor activity.
Power abilities are understood as the ability of a person to overcome external resistance or counteract it due to muscle efforts (tensions). There are the following types of strength abilities: proper strength, speed-strength and strength endurance.
Speed abilities are understood as the capabilities of a person that provide him with the performance of motor actions in the minimum period of time for these conditions. There are the following types of speed abilities: speed of reaction, speed of a single movement, frequency (tempo) of movements. They are considered to be elementary types (forms) of manifestation of speed abilities. TO speed abilities also include the speed of performing integral motor actions, the ability to gain maximum speed as quickly as possible and the ability to maintain it for a long time. These are complex types of speed abilities.
Endurance is understood as a person's capabilities that provide him with a long-term performance of any motor activity without reducing its effectiveness. In this case, it is the ability to resist physical fatigue in the process of muscular activity. There are a lot of types of endurance: speed, power, local, regional, global, static, dynamic, cardiovascular, muscular, as well as general and special, emotional, game, distance, coordination, jumping, etc.
Flexibility is the morphological and functional properties of the musculoskeletal system, which determine the degree of mobility of its links relative to each other. The term flexibility is more appropriate when referring to the total mobility in the joints of the whole body. And in relation to individual joints, it is more correct to say mobility, and not flexibility, for example, mobility in shoulder joints etc.
Coordination abilities are the capabilities of an individual, which determine his readiness for optimal control and regulation of a motor action. Coordination abilities are divided into special, specific and general.
The general coordination abilities are understood as the potential and realized abilities of a person, which determine his readiness for optimal control of motor actions of different origin and meaning and their regulation.
Special coordination abilities are the capabilities of a person that determine his readiness for optimal control of similar in origin and meaning motor actions and their regulation. Specific coordination abilities are understood as the capabilities of an individual that determine his readiness for optimal control of individual specific actions (for coordination, rhythm, reaction, etc.) and their regulation.
There are elementary and complex coordination abilities. Elementary ones are manifested in walking, running, etc., complex ones - in games, martial arts, etc.
3. Methods for the development of physical qualities
Success in solving the problems of physical training also depends on right choice and skillful application of methods.
Methods for developing strength and speed-strength qualities
1. The method of short-term efforts is characterized by the performance of an exercise in which the trainee shows the greatest strength for him in this training session. In terms of intensity, this is the maximum, or limiting effort.
2. The method of unlimited efforts - 30-50% of the maximum, manifested at the maximum speed of the exercises.
3. Method of coupled (combined) impact. It is characterized by the development of strength and speed-strength qualities within the structure of a technique or its links. For example, performing a reception with weights of the whole body.
4. Circuit training. 6-12 stations are organized. Exercises are selected so that the main muscle groups are consistently involved in the work. Tasks are individual for each trainee (by the number of times, by the amount of burden, by time).
Speed Development Methods
1. Repeat method. Its essence boils down to performing exercises with a near-limit, maximum and exceeding its speed. Given the great role of reaction speed in sports games, tasks should be performed separately in response to a signal (mainly visual) and to the speed of performing individual movements and tasks. The duration of the task is such, during which the maximum speed is maintained - from 5 to 15-20 s.
2. The method of conjugated influence. For example, moving with weights, etc.
3. Circuit training. Exercises are selected so that the main muscle groups and joints participate in the work, so that the speed of reaction, the speed of a single contraction and the frequency of movements are manifested.
4. Game method. Performing exercises for speed in outdoor games and special relay races.
5. Competitive method. Performing tasks with maximum speed in a competitive environment.
Endurance Development Methods
1. Variable method. Continuous alternation of acceleration and slow running, serial jumps in full force with jumping rope with low intensity, etc.
2. The flow method of performing a special set of exercises. The trainee has to consistently perform exercises to develop strength, speed, dexterity in various combinations. The same purpose can be served by circuit training. To develop game endurance, trainees perform a number of imitations of technical techniques in a stream, as well as the techniques themselves.
Methods of development of coordination abilities (dexterity).
1. The method of complicating previously learned exercises. Complications are achieved by changing the starting positions, including additional movements.
2. The method of bilateral development of exercises. It is supposed to perform exercises in the left and right side, left and right hand, foot, etc. This also applies to the technique of the game and the improvement of techniques.
4. Changing spatial boundaries. In familiar exercises and games, they change the boundaries of the site, the distance, the number of players, etc.
5. Performing familiar movements in previously unknown combinations (as directed, in response to signals, etc.).
6. Exercises for switching to techniques and tactical actions.
Methods for developing flexibility
They are aimed at developing mobility in those joints that are involved in the performance of game techniques, at stretching muscles and tendons. Exercises are performed with a large amplitude: various inclinations, rotations, swings, etc.
Exercises for the development of flexibility are divided into active and passive: active ones are performed without weights and with weights, passive - with the help of a partner or with weights. Exercises are carried out in series of 4-5 movements, gradually increasing the amplitude. Along with the development of exercises for the development of flexibility, it is necessary to teach trainees the ability to relax.
When choosing the means and methods of physical training, it is necessary to take into account age features trainees and their level of readiness.
Topic 10. Means of recovery, prevention and rehabilitation in
1. Fatigue and recovery
2. Training and competitive loads
3. Characteristics of pedagogical means of recovery
4. Biomedical Recovery
5. Psychological means of recovery
1. Fatigue, recovery, supercompensation
The process of fatigue is a set of changes that occur in various organs, systems and the body as a whole during the period of physical work and ultimately lead to the impossibility of its continuation. The state of fatigue is characterized by a temporary decrease in performance caused by the load, which manifests itself in a subjective feeling of fatigue. In a state of fatigue, a person is either unable to maintain the required level of intensity and quality of work, or is forced to completely abandon its continuation.
After the termination of the exercise, reverse changes occur in the activity of those functional systems that ensured the performance this exercise. The whole set of changes during this period is contained in the concept of restoration. During the recovery period, the products of the working metabolism are removed and the reserves of energy, plastic (structural) substances (proteins, etc.) and enzymes consumed during the activity are replenished.
Even IP Pavlov discovered a number of regularities in the course of recovery processes that have not lost their significance at the present time.
1. In a working organ, along with the processes of destruction and exhaustion, a process of restoration takes place; it is observed not only after the end of work, but already in the process of activity.
2. The relationship of exhaustion and recovery is determined by the intensity of work; during intensive work, the recovery process is not able to fully compensate for the consumption, therefore, full compensation for losses occurs later, during rest.
3. Restoration of spent resources does not occur to the initial level, but with some excess (the phenomenon of excess compensation)
Supercompensation is the phenomenon of exceeding the initial level in the process of recovery after a decrease caused by the performance of physical work. The complex nature of the genesis of the recovery period, reflected in the heterochronism of the restoration of vegetative functions and the phase fluctuation of the level of restoration of working capacity motor function is clearly undulating.
Muscular work, depending on the intensity and duration, leads to a decrease in the level of creatine phosphate in the muscles, depletion of intramuscular and liver glycogen stores, and fat reserves. Simply put, the substances that are sources of energy during strength training are depleted. Intensively occurring after the termination of the load, the recovery processes lead to the fact that at a certain point of rest after work, the level of energy substances exceeds the initial pre-training level. In the supercompensation phase, the body is able to perform a greater amount of work per unit of time than before the training exposure, i.e. there is an increase in physical (sports) performance. This is the effect of training. This is the body's natural response to fatigue. It is thanks to the phenomenon of supercompensation that the training effect arises. The systematic repetition of loads in the phase of supercompensation leads to an increase in working capacity
2. Training and competitive loads
The current level of development of sports is characterized by a steady trend towards increasing the volume, intensity and intensity of training. The influence of training loads on the athlete's body is not only specific, but also diverse, and the higher their level, the more urgent the need to use various restorative means that contribute to the effective perception of acute training effects by the body becomes.
Recovery processes can be subdivided: current recovery during exercise; urgent recovery that occurs immediately after the end of work; delayed recovery, which is observed for a long time after the training load;
stress recovery - recovery after chronic surges.
Recovery activities are carried out mainly in two situations:
1) in competition conditions, when it is necessary to ensure a quick and, if possible, complete restoration of special physical and mental readiness for next step;
2) in the daily educational and training process in the course of improving the general and special performance associated with its integral
partly fatigue.
3. Characteristics of pedagogical means of recovery
Pedagogical means of recovery. I. M. Sechenov found that the consequences of fatigue are eliminated faster if a person does not rest passively after work, but involves the muscles that did not actively participate in the main work into an active state.
The mechanism of action of active rest is explained by the neuro-reflex theory, the essence of which is as follows: during active rest, the inhibition resulting from work is eliminated in the cerebral cortex, and after a while, a vascular reaction also occurs (the blood vessels of the working muscles expand).
The advantage of active rest over passive rest has been confirmed by the studies of a number of scientists in various modes of muscular activity.
To ensure active rest after muscular work, various means are used. For example, for active muscle relaxation, work performed by the legs is recommended. Positive effect was also obtained by reducing various muscles torso, with static stresses and even with mental representations of movement. Some authors recommend using muscle relaxation exercises in the recovery process. A skier, for example, after the end of the race, performs a uniform, calm run, followed by the above exercises. Compensatory swimming is recommended for swimmers, independent cycling is recommended for cyclists (bike highway).
Pedagogical means also include the use of various forms of active recreation, conducting classes on the ground, in the bosom of nature, various types of switching from one type of work to another, etc.
Pedagogical means of recovery are the main ones, as they determine the mode and the correct combination of loads and rest at all stages of the long-term training of athletes. They include:
Rational planning training process in accordance with the functional capabilities of the athlete's body, the correct combination of general and special means, the optimal construction of training and competitive micro and macro cycles, the widespread use of switching, a clear organization of work and rest;
Proper construction of a separate training session using means to relieve fatigue (a full-fledged individual warm-up, selection of equipment and places for training, exercises for active recreation and relaxation, creating a positive emotional background);
Variation of rest intervals between individual exercises and training sessions;
Development of a planning system using various restorative means in monthly and annual training cycles;
Development of special physical exercises in order to accelerate the recovery of athletes' performance, improve motor skills, and teach tactical actions.
A full warm-up is a pedagogical means that promotes recovery.
The main goal of the warm-up is to achieve optimal excitability of the central nervous system, mobilization physiological functions body to perform a relatively more intense muscular activity and "working out" the musculoskeletal apparatus before a training session or competition.
Underestimation of the value of the warm-up is often the cause of various kinds of injuries of the musculoskeletal system, which not only reduce the functionality of the body, but also put the athlete out of action, sometimes for a long time.
Often, before the warm-up, a pre-start massage with warming ointments is carried out, which allows you to warm up the muscles, speed up the process of working out and prevent injuries. This is especially important in cold and windy weather.
4. Biomedical Restoration
A special place among the means of recovery, contributing to the increase physical performance, as well as preventing the occurrence of various negative consequences from physical exertion, are occupied by medical and biological means, which include: rational nutrition, pharmacological preparations and vitamins, protein preparations, sports drinks, oxygen cocktail, physio and hydrotherapy, various types of massage, local negative pressure (LOD), baths (saunas), oxygen therapy, adaptogens and drugs that affect energy processes, needle action, electrical stimulation, electrosleep, air ionization, music (color music).
Nutrition is the main factor in recovery. In the process of intense training and especially competition, nutrition is one of the leading factors in improving performance, accelerating recovery processes and combating fatigue.
5. Psychological Remedies
It has long been known that mental attitude is extremely important in sports. Athletes with "moral fortitude" perform more successfully. It is now generally accepted that athletes and coaches need to study a wide range of psychological issues that can play a critical role in training and performance.
Athletes and coaches are greatly assisted by sports psychologists. They can help manage the stresses of competition, induce the state of readiness needed for optimal performance, and eliminate the hassle of team travel and competition performances. Psychological training should be an integral part of a holistic training process. This is best achieved with the cooperation of the coach, psychologist and athlete. However, a knowledgeable and motivated coach can learn the basics of psychology and pass them on to the athlete.
Psychological means of recovery include psychoregulatory training, exercises for muscle relaxation, sleep - rest and other methods of psychohygiene and psychotherapy. Particular attention should be paid to negatively acting psychogenic factors (unfavorable reaction of the audience, fear of losing, getting injured, psychological pressure of opponents.
Topic 11. Scientific and methodological work of students
1. Growth sports achievements and the need to improve the system of training athletes
2. The role of science and methodological developments in increasing the efficiency of the process of training athletes
3. Mastering the skills of scientific and methodological activities by students and using scientific research data in their work
Distinguish between the competitive load and the load of the competitive exercise. With a competitive load, the number of competitions and starts in which the athlete took part at various stages of preparation is subject to control. When controlling the load of a competitive exercise, its physical and physiological parameters are taken into account. Competitive load is measured by the following characteristics:
the number of competitions in each of the training stages;
the number of starts in these competitions.
In different sports, the volume of competitive load is different. So, in sports games they compete 50-100 times, in figure skating 7-10 times. Modern sport is characterized by a tendency to increase the competitive load. At the same time, competitions become an important form of athlete training.
The results of the competitive load control are used to assess the duration of maintaining the state, which is called the sports form (however, the information content of such a criterion is not great).
A reliable judgment about the duration of maintaining a sports form can be made according to the values of three criteria:
results of official competitions;
results of control competitions;
test data under standard conditions.
Topic 2.5. Metrological bases of selection in sports
The role of metrology in modeling and predicting the state of athletes. The main stages of creation and content of mathematical, physical and electronic models. The choice of quantitative model characteristics, their justification. Characteristics of group and individual models of preparedness of athletes.
Metrological bases of forecast and selection in sport. Stability and heritability of traits as the basis of prognosis. Two-factor theory of the stability of sports performance. Examples of stable and unstable indicators.
The main metrological approaches in predicting sports achievements and the factors that determine them. Growth rate as a prognostic indicator.
Metrological conditions for increasing efficiency sports selection.
LECTURE
The problem of sports orientation and selection has not been in its infancy for a long time, but has become an independent science. Predicting the possibilities of a child or teenager, the trainer-breeder sets himself the task of creating a reasonable search for talented individuals with the hope of a successful sports specialization in the future.
Despite numerous data, the problem of selecting and orienting the most talented people is in the process of constant search, improvement and further development. Science-based methods of selecting "sporty" children in youth sports schools, as well as predicting their future results, are becoming an integral part of the modern system of training athletes from beginners to international class masters.
Particularly relevant is the issue of timely identification of abilities in children and adolescents, since in them, as the body forms and develops, motor and mental abilities are differentiated, their various manifestations become less interconnected, and tendencies to certain types of motor activity begin to be more noticeably detected.
It is known that children school age are widely involved in classes in sports schools. A rational system of selection and sports orientation allows you to timely identify the inclinations and abilities of children and adolescents, create favorable conditions for the most complete disclosure of their potential, the achievement of spiritual and physical perfection and, on this basis, mastering the heights of sportsmanship.
An objective assessment of the individual characteristics of young athletes is given on the basis of complex studies of children, adolescents, boys, girls, since there is no any criterion for sports prospects. Even such an integral indicator as a sports result cannot be of decisive importance in the process of selecting athletes, especially if it concerns children and adolescents with an incomplete formation of the body. Separately considered morphological, functional, biomechanical, pedagogical, psychological indicators are insufficient for rational sports selection. Only on the basis of a comprehensive methodology for identifying inclinations (genetic inclinations) and abilities necessary for mastering the heights of sportsmanship, it is possible to effectively select children and adolescents for sports.
Sports Selection- this is a system of organizational and methodological measures of a complex nature, including pedagogical, sociological, psychological and biomedical research methods, on the basis of which the inclinations and abilities of children, adolescents, girls and boys for specialization in a particular sport are revealed. The main task of sports selection is a comprehensive study and identification of inclinations and abilities that best meet the requirements of a particular sport. Some experts instead of the term "sports selection" use the term "revealing sports suitability". This is understood as a system of means and methods for determining and evaluating inclinations and abilities in a chosen sport (or in a group of homogeneous sports). Sports orientation is a system of organizational and methodological measures of a complex nature, on the basis of which the narrow specialization of an individual in a particular sport is determined.
Analysis and theoretical generalization of the results of numerous studies allow us to formulate the main provisions of the theory of sports selection. Sports selection is a multi-stage, long-term process covering all periods of sports training. It is based on a comprehensive study of the abilities of athletes, creating favorable conditions for the formation of these abilities, allowing them to successfully improve in their chosen sport.
The improvement of a wide variety of sports expands the individual's ability to achieve mastery in one of the sports activities. A weak manifestation of personality traits and qualitative characteristics in relation to one sport cannot be considered as a lack of sports abilities. Unpreferable signs in one kind of sports activity may turn out to be favorable and provide high performance in another kind of sport. In this regard, the prediction of sports abilities can only be carried out in relation to a particular type or group of sports, based on the general provisions specific to the selection system.
Sports features largely depend on hereditary inclinations, which are stable and conservative. Therefore, when predicting sports abilities, attention should first of all be paid to those relatively little changeable signs that determine the success of further sports activities. Since the role of hereditary characteristics is revealed to the maximum when high demands are placed on the body of the athlete, then when evaluating the activity of a young athlete, it is necessary to focus on the level of highest achievements.
Along with the study of conservative signs, the forecast of sports abilities involves the identification of those indicators that can change significantly under the influence of training. At the same time, in order to increase the degree of accuracy of the forecast, it is necessary to take into account both the growth rates of indicators and their initial level. In connection with the heterochronic development of individual functions and qualitative features, there are certain differences in the structure of the manifestation of abilities in athletes in different age periods. These differences are especially clearly observed in those involved in technically complex sports, where high sports results are achieved already in childhood and adolescence, and the entire training of an athlete from a beginner to an international class master of sports takes place against the backdrop of complex processes of formation of a young athlete.
The problem of selecting young athletes should be solved in a comprehensive manner, based on the use of pedagogical, biomedical, psychological, sociological research methods. Pedagogical research methods allow assessing the level of development of physical qualities, coordination abilities and sports and technical skills of young athletes. Based on the application of physical and biological methods of research, morphofunctional features, the level of physical development, the state of the analyzer systems of the athlete's body, which influence the solution of individual and collective tasks in the course of wrestling, are revealed, and the psychological compatibility of athletes is assessed when solving the tasks assigned to the sports team. Sociological research methods allow obtaining data on sports interests children, to reveal the cause-and-effect relationships of the formation of motivations for long-term sports and high sports achievements.
The selection process for a sports school is divided into three stages (Table 4).
Table 4
Selection system for a sports school
|
Selection stage |
Main goals selection stage |
Basic selection methods |
|
Preliminary selection of children for sports school |
Pedagogical observation Control tests (tests) Reviews-competitions by sports sociological research |
|
|
An in-depth check of the compliance of the previously displayed contingent of those involved with the requirements for successful specialization in the chosen sport. Enrollment of children and adolescents in a sports school |
Pedagogical observation Control tests Psychological research |
|
|
Long-term systematic study of each student of a sports school in order to finally determine his individual and sports specialization (stage of sports orientation) |
Pedagogical observation Control tests Competitions and control estimates Psychological research Biomedical Research |
The main objectives of the first stage of selection is to attract as many sports gifted children and adolescents as possible to sports activities, their preview and organization of initial sports training. The indicators that determine the expediency of involving children in many sports include: height, weight, and physique of the child.
Important for the correct selection are the observations of the coach and teacher of physical education in sports sections, at intra-school, district, city competitions and during control tests. It is advisable to carry out preliminary preparation of children for admission to the Youth Sports School as part of the school physical education lessons. The selection of special means can be directed to influence the formation of the ability of younger students to engage in a particular sport and, on this basis, to carry out species orientation.
Sports practice shows that at the first stage it is still impossible to identify the ideal type of children who combine morphological, biomechanical, functional and mental qualities necessary for further specialization in a particular sport.
Significant individual differences in the biological development of beginners greatly complicate this task. Therefore, the data obtained at this stage of selection should be used as indicative.
In order to identify the potential opportunities of children and adolescents with a greater degree of probability, it is advisable to determine not only the initial level of their preparedness, but mainly the rate of its growth. In the selection system, control tests should be carried out in such a way as to determine not only what the applicant already knows how to do, but what he can do in the future, that is, to identify his ability to solve motor problems, the emergence of motor creativity, the ability to control his movements.
One-time control tests in the vast majority of cases speak only of the candidate's readiness for this moment perform the set of tests proposed to him and very little is said about his promising capabilities. And the potential sports result of an athlete depends not so much on the initial level of development of physical qualities, but on the rate of growth of these qualities in the process of special training.
The physical development of children is assessed by a number of external signs: height, weight, body proportions, the shape of the spinal column and chest, the structure of the pelvis and legs, and the size of the foot. After that, the motor abilities of children are examined.
At the second stage of selection, an in-depth check of the compliance of the pre-selected contingent of trainees with the requirements for successful training in the chosen sport is carried out. The coach studies the possibilities of students on the basis of pedagogical observations in the process of sports training, control tests, competitions and control estimates, completes training groups from among the most capable children and adolescents. It is important to take into account not so much the initial level of control indications that children had when enrolling in children's and youth sports schools, but the dynamics of changes in these indicators during the period of classes. This approach provides an opportunity with a higher degree of accuracy to identify the potential capabilities of those involved, their sports talent. The leading criteria for forecasting at this stage are the rate of development of physical qualities and the formation of motor skills (motor learning). Motor learning can be judged by the time it takes for trainees to master the technique of a particular exercise. The rate of formation of motor skills and the development of physical qualities make it possible to foresee the prospects of sports improvement in the future.
The task of the second stage of selection is to determine the degree of compliance of the individual data of young athletes with the requirements that will be presented to them at the stage of sports improvement. At this stage, pedagogical observations, control tests, competitions and estimates, biomedical and psychological examinations are carried out.
The task of the third stage of selection (the stage of sports orientation) is a long-term systematic study of each student of a sports school for the final determination of his individual sports specialization. A long and thorough study of an athlete increases the reliability of determining his specialization. At this stage, pedagogical observations, control tests, biomedical and psychological research are carried out in order to further determine the strengths and weaknesses of the trainees' preparedness. At this time, the issue of the individual sports orientation of the student is finally resolved.
The main selection methods at the third stage are anthropometric surveys, biomedical research, pedagogical control tests, registration of the biomechanical characteristics of the performance of a motor action, psychological and sociological studies. In the course of anthropometric surveys, it is necessary to determine how candidates for enrolling in a sports school correspond to the morphotype that is characteristic of the most prominent representatives of this sport.
The management of training and competitive processes in sports (as in any other kind of activity) consists of three stages: 1) collecting information, 2) analyzing it, and 3) making decisions (planning). The collection of information is usually carried out in the process of complex control, the object of which is, first of all, the athlete himself and the work performed by him.
There are quite a few indicators suitable for assessing the volume of physical activity. These include, for example, the distances covered by the Athlete when performing physical exercises, the number of training days (sessions, hours), combinations and elements, Fights and approaches to apparatuses.
The indicators of load intensity are just as diverse: the speed of performing cyclic exercises, the number of elements (combinations, approaches) performed per unit of time, average weight rods, etc.
Load volume control. There are, apparently, only two generalized indicators of the amount of load that are suitable for use in all sports without exception: 1) the time spent on training and competitive activities (number of hours, days, weeks, etc.) and 2) the amount training sessions (cycles, stages, periods, etc.).
In cyclic sports, firstly, the total volume of specialized load (in km), and, secondly, the so-called partial volumes of training loads have become widespread.
Training work in running, skiing, rowing is not as diverse as in games, martial arts, gymnastics, however, specialized and non-specialized exercises are also used here. The time spent on their implementation is recorded separately, and when summarizing the results, private volumes of specific and non-specific loads are analyzed. The ratio of partial volumes calculated after this is an informative indicator when comparing the load both at different stages of training (preparatory, competitive), and for athletes of different qualifications (or for the same athlete as his sports qualification improves).
The intensity of the training exercises in different classes can vary significantly. In turn, this variability will affect the magnitude and direction of the immediate and delayed training effects. Much attention has always been paid to solving the problem of classifying loads depending on the intensity of their implementation.
In the classifications of loads in different sports, the ideas of V. S. Farfel and N. I. Volkov are implemented
Recovery zone exercises are used as a means of active recovery. The parameters of the physical and physiological indicators of this zone are small, and such a load has practically no developmental effect even on the body of an athlete of average qualification.
The loads of the second zone are aimed at maintaining the achieved level of fitness, as well as at the development and improvement of aerobic mechanisms of energy production (on the level of which, as is known, working capacity and general endurance depend). As can be seen from Table. 26, the magnitude of the responses of the leading systems of the body in this zone is small. The magnitude of the combined load (as the product of physical and physiological) confirms the moderation of functional changes.
In the third zone, which F. P. Suslov calls "developing", exercises are used to develop the aerobic and anaerobic mechanisms of energy production. During such work, the concentration of lactic acid in the blood increases, which indicates the activation of glycolysis. However, in general, its level is low and the values of indicators of acid-base balance ( pH And BE) indicate that, according to the direction of the load, this zone should be classified as aerobic.
The exercises of the fourth zone - the "economization" zone - are aimed at the complex development of all the motor qualities leading for this exercise, as well as at improving the specific performance of runners. It can be seen that O2 consumption reaches its maximum level, and this indicates the limiting stress of aerobic support systems.
Submaximal loads of the fifth zone are aimed at improving speed endurance. The tension of the systems of aerobic energy production is close to the maximum, and at the same time glycolysis sharply increases. Work in this zone is very difficult: the rapidly increasing concentration of lactic acid inhibits the aerobic mechanisms of energy production. However, the selection of optimal rest intervals between attempts can reduce the adverse consequences of such work for the body.
The "maximum" loads of the sixth zone are aimed at developing and improving the speed qualities and speed endurance of athletes. The role of aerobic processes as energy suppliers sharply decreases, but anaerobic alactic energy production increases just as sharply, reaching its maximum in this zone.
The universality of F. P. Suslov's classification of loads allows us to consider it as a base for cyclic sports. With this approach, the assessment of the orientation of specialized and non-specialized means of training becomes exactly the same. This not only simplifies calculations, but also makes it possible to assess the total impact of all training exercises on the most important body systems. For example, consider the classification of loads in rowing proposed by A.F. Sass (1975) (Table 27).
It can be seen that the immediate training effect of any of the load zones is determined by its components and, above all, by the rowing pace. An increase in the latter naturally leads to an increase in the speed of the boat and a decrease in the time it takes to cover a standard distance.
The classification of the specific loads of ski racers includes four zones: light, medium, strong and limiting (N. A. Koryagin, 1968). In the easy zone, the duration of work should exceed 6 hours, and the intensity of the functioning of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems be at the level of 50-60% of the maximum. Work in the limit zone according to this classification can last no more than 2 minutes; at the same time, pulmonary ventilation will be equal to 130-140 l / min, heart rate - 190 beats / min, O2 consumption close to the maximum (and 4-5 times less than the O2 request).
The competitive load is understood as the number of competitions and starts in which the athlete participated at a certain stage of preparation.
Estimating the volume of competitive load has become especially important due to the increase in the number of competitions, which is typical for all sports.
1) the number of competitions per stage;
2) the number of starts in these competitions.
the duration of the stage may be different, but most often it is half a year or a year. In different sports, the indicators of competitive load are not the same.
When evaluating the competitive load, it is necessary to separately consider the number of main and leading competitions.
The load of a competitive exercise should be the basis for the selection and distribution of training exercises. Therefore, it is necessary to know the structure of the competitive exercise and the factors that determine its result. Such information allows not only to manage the training process at the moment; it becomes possible to predict the requirements that the load of a competitive exercise will impose on the body of athletes with results exceeding world records.
The load of a competitive exercise, like any other, can be assessed from the “external” (physical load) and from the “internal” (physiological load) side. In cyclic sports, it is not difficult to determine its physical and physiological parameters. For example, in sprint at 200 m maximum speed the strongest athletes exceed 11.5 m/s, and the concentration of lactic acid in the blood after running a distance reaches 200 mg% (N. I. Volkov, 1968). Similar indicators for running 400 m, 800 m and 1500 m, respectively, are: 9 m/s and 227 mg%, 8 m/s and 211 mg%, 7 m/s and 163 mg%.
In order for training plans to be based on modern physiological concepts, objective and subjective indicators are now widely used to assess the level of performance and its changes under the influence of the training means used.
However, a simple calculation of parameters such as volume (measured in mileage or hours) is not enough to describe the level of psycho-physiological stress experienced by an athlete. The stress caused sports training, is determined by more complex dependencies - intensity, duration (volume) and frequency of training.
To establish the effectiveness of training in practice, as a rule, the method of compiling objective functions that reflect dose-response relationship. Changes in the growth of the trained function, depending on the amount of training loads performed, reflects the adaptive changes in the body that occur during the training process. The determinants of these processes, according to a number of authors, are biochemical changes, the rate of recovery, the risk of injury, and so on. Let's consider some approaches to measuring the training load.
Training Impulse Method (TRIMPS).
The training impulse method (TRIMPS - Training Impuls) was developed by a group of foreign sports physiologists under the guidance of E.U. Banister. The method consists in measuring the training session in units - doses of physical effort.
Training Impulse Index (TRIMPS) - the value of the training load - evaluates the load according to the formula: TRIMP = T (mins) x ∆HR x Y
Where: T– load duration (min), ∆HR- heart rate, Y– weight coefficient of the given heart rate range.
The weighting coefficient "y" characterizes the average lactate profile and is equal to 1.67 for women and 1.92 for men. The use of this method is limited by the need to constantly use heart monitors in training. In addition, this technique cannot be used to quantify strength training or submaximal running loads. It is advisable to select individualized coefficients based on the lactate profile that characterize the relationship between heart rate and lactate concentration for a particular athlete. The same amount of TRIMPS can be obtained from both a short high intensity workout, and due to the large training volume of low intensity.
Method of generalized training zones.
A number of researchers have used the traditional five training intensity zones based on different heart rate values. Each zone has its own weighting factor, and TRIMPS is calculated by multiplying the time spent in each of the training zones by the corresponding factor. Here is one example of the distribution of coefficients by heart rate zones.
To restrictions this method should be attributed to the fact that in different subjects the anaerobic threshold is characteristic for different levels of heart rate. For example, in one athlete, the anaerobic threshold occurs at a heart rate of 76% of the maximum, and in another, the anaerobic threshold heart rate is 83%. Performing a 30 minute load at 78% intensity will earn each of them the same number of TRIMP points (30 x 3), but the physiological stress will vary significantly.
- The first zone is, as it is also commonly called, the aerobic zone, which is at the level of the aerobic threshold and below. The upper boundary of this zone is the first lactate threshold(LT1), which corresponds to a lactate concentration of 2 mmol/l. As a rule, it is in this range of intensity that highly qualified athletes in endurance sports spend most of the load. Energy, when exercised in this zone, is extracted mainly through the oxidation of fatty acids. Athletes, working in this zone, develop the body's ability to effectively use fatty acids as an energy source, which increases their performance.
- The second zone, adjacent or mixed, is above the aerobic threshold (first ventilatory threshold) but below the anaerobic threshold (second ventilatory threshold). Energy supply at this intensity is provided both through the oxidation of fatty acids and with a progressive increase in the oxidation of carbohydrates. In the intensity range of the second zone, the lactate concentration reaches the level of 2-4 mmol/l.
- The third zone lies between the level of the anaerobic threshold and the value of maximum oxygen consumption (MOC). The third zone is a zone of high-intensity physical activity, where the main source of energy is carbohydrates obtained through the breakdown of glycogen. Competitive activity in its intensity is close to the third zone. Have qualified professional athletes highly qualified, about 20% of the volume of the entire training load occurs in the third zone.
- Supramaximal load, lies outside the value of the IPC. At this intensity, the anaerobic mechanism of energy supply predominates. This intensity is close to the maximum possible, and can be maintained by the athlete for a relatively short time.
From a practical point of view, the above-mentioned zones have fairly wide boundaries. In Norway, a country with traditionally strong cyclical disciplines, it is customary to divide intensity zones in a more detailed way, without losing the general contours of physiological principles. Their classification is dictated more by practical needs than by physiological justifications. According to the Norwegian scheme, the zone at and below the aerobic threshold is subdivided into two subzones 1 and 2, respectively.
- Zone number one is called the recovery zone.
- Zone number two is called moderate. As a rule, long running-in workouts are held in the temperate zone.
- Zone number 3, the mixed zone, is mild in intensity.
- Zone number 4 and 5 lie above the anaerobic threshold and have narrow ranges. These zones are called the zone of medium and high severity.
- Everything that is above the intensity level of the IPC is in the supramaximal zone, the anaerobic zone. With this intensity accelerations of short duration are usually made and prolonged stay in this zone leads to fatigue or, in the worst case, overwork.
The classification of the severity of physical activity is necessary for a more accurate analysis of the preparation and drawing conclusions. According to the well-known sports specialist from Norway, Stephen Seiler, only 3 zones of intensity matter from the point of view of physiological reactions:
- to the aerobic threshold (the average athlete has a lactate concentration of 2 mlM / l)
- mixed zone (between aerobic threshold and anaerobic threshold, lactate 2-4 mlM/l).
- after anaerobic threshold (lactate >4 mlM/l).
Each zone is assigned a coefficient (1,2,3, for example). The time spent in each zone (information is available in modern sports heart monitors - Polar, Garmin, Ciclosport, etc.) is multiplied by a coefficient and added up. This is the training load according to the modified method of generalized training zones. Another name for the training load scores derived from the three zones is Lucia's TRIMPS.
The so-called "training goal method" (session-goal method).
An alternative approach to measuring the time spent in different intensity zones was proposed by the Norwegian specialist Stephan Seieler. In contrast to the approach based on importing training data from sports cardio monitors, in the training goal method, each training session (or part of the session, for example, interval work, warm-up) is assigned a corresponding number, based not on the actual accumulated time in the zone, but on the basis of from the goal set by the coach to conduct a training session or part of it in the target intensity zone. The comparative analysis carried out in this work showed that these two methods give different estimates of the time spent by the athlete in the zones of intensity. This is due, firstly, to the inertia in the reaction of the cardiovascular system to an increase in intensity. Secondly, at submaximal speeds of short duration, heart rate is no longer a valid measure of the degree of training stress experienced by an athlete.
A limitation of this basic and generalized training zone method is the use of a linear dependence of weights on heart rate, which does not quite accurately reflect physiological responses at speeds higher than the anaerobic threshold. In addition, the selection of weighting factors is subjective. Finally, the weight coefficients characterize a certain range of intensities described by HR. Meanwhile, the load at the beginning of the zone and at the end of the zone, obviously, is associated with slightly different levels of physiological stress, however, the magnitude of the measured training load will be the same.
At the same time, an increase in the average heart rate per workout by one beat per minute can transfer the entire workout from one zone to another, higher one (and the training time will receive a greater weighting factor). However, from a physiological point of view, these training loads are almost identical.
A common disadvantage of all approaches using the training impulses technique is also the reduction of the training load to one number, regardless of the energy system involved in the performance of training or competitive work. For example, a low intensity 3k run might give TRIMPS=15 for some athlete. Same amount of TRIMPS as 1500m competition. This method does not take into account the specific training effects associated with energy systems. Nevertheless, this group methods has become widespread as the main method for measuring the training and competitive load.
It should be noted that in real conditions of training and competitive activity, the use of traditional instrumental methods is associated with significant difficulties. Therefore, the increasing interest of sports specialists is attracted by psychometric methods, which provide an opportunity for an integral assessment of the loads performed. The assessment of the athlete's own efforts quite accurately reflects the individual perception of the intensity of the training load. This assessment can be expressed using numerical scales (Borg scale, RPE, "rate of perceived exertion").
As was shown, the use of this method in comparison with subjective assessments of physical activity, the use of a large volume of low-intensity loads in training practice underestimates the level of physiological stress by the method of generalized zones in comparison with subjective assessments of RPE. Comparison of athletes who spend a lot of time in high-intensity training regimes leads to an overestimation of the level of training load by methods using heart rate compared to quantification methods based on the use of subjective self-assessments.
At the same time, it should be taken into account that the terminology used in Russian and foreign publications differs significantly, which can lead to discrepancies. It seems that there is an urgent need to streamline and unify definitions in the field of sports science. An accurate understanding of the terms allows us to adequately assess the achievements in this special field of knowledge, while at the same time, the misuse of terms or the accumulation of unnecessary terms only removes us from reality and hinders the development of this discipline.
In the domestic literature devoted to the problem of quantification of training and competitive loads, the concept of " sports preparedness» which includes both fitness and functional readiness, and sportswear. In a broader sense, the athlete's fitness structure includes technical, physical, tactical and mental elements. At the same time, some experts emphasize that the mentioned states, although they are not synonyms, adequately reflect the course of adaptive processes to the load.
Sources of information: Cejuela-Anta R, Esteve-Lanao (2011), Hausken K (2014), Garcia-Ramos A (2013), Geiger G (2010), Neborskaya K.S., Kurashvili V.A. (2012, 2013, 2015), Andersson E, Pellegrini B, Sandbakk O, Stüggl T, Holmberg HC (2014), Alekseev V.M., E.B. Akimov (2008), Losnegard T, Hallén J (2014), Kozina Zh., Ermakov S., Prusik K (2011), Akimov E.B., Grushin A.A., Alekseev V.M. (2006), Borresen and Lambert (2008), Edwards (1993).
