Psychophysiological aspects of yoga. Ebert Dietrich - Physiological aspects of yoga

Warm-up is the preparatory part of any training process, which includes performing special exercises immediately before the main part training complex. The main goal of warming up is to achieve an optimal level of central nervous system excitability and mobilize the physiological functions of the body before the upcoming load.

Sometimes the need for dynamic warm-up in the structure of a yoga complex is questioned. In our opinion, warming up is not only necessary, but also has its own characteristics.

Many asanas involve quite complex joint rotations necessary to take the pose and therefore warm-up is mandatory should include joint exercises.

Firstly, with active joint movements, normalization of the amount of synovial fluid, filling the joint cavities: if there is an initial insufficient amount, its formation and release into the joint cavity by the synovial membrane is stimulated; if there is an excess (which can occur during inflammatory processes), it is absorbed back into the blood or lymphatic bed. In addition, its viscosity and electrolyte composition changes. This greatly facilitates further work in asanas, prevents possible pain and, therefore, the inability to perform many poses.

Secondly, the articular apparatus, in addition to its own ligaments, also includes muscle tendons passing through the joint or attached to its capsule. Thus, the joint “coordinates” the action of a group of muscles whose tendons participate in the formation of the joint. The group is called functional and unites muscles that perform a specific motor act (the group includes the main muscle, synergists, antagonists and auxiliary muscles).

When used in warm-up all major joints, is happening coordination of relationships and movements of various functional muscle groups and parts of the body. This is one of the tasks that asanas “perform”. And therefore, joint gymnastics can be considered an integral part of the main complex, preceding a deeper study of intermuscular relationships in asanas.

Third, articular surfaces and articular ligaments are an extensive receptor field, which includes more than 4 types of receptors that are located in the joint capsule, in the thickness of the joint ligaments, as well as in the tendons of the muscles passing through the joint or attached to its capsule.

Let's look at the main types of joint receptors. One of the types - Golgi endings sensitive to changes in the joint angle; another - Ruffini corpuscles,– to the speed of change. At the same time, Ruffini endings are also sensitive to the activity of muscles that change the tension of the joint capsule. Vater-Paccini endings sensitive to changes in the tension of the joint capsule due to its tension and movements. The difference between the Vater-Paccini endings and the Golgi and Ruffini receptors is that the former give a quick response, which lasts as long as the tension of the joint capsule changes and stops no later than 1 second. The latter are “slow” receptors, the adaptation period of which lasts for 0.5 -1 minutes.

Hence the need to warm up one joint for at least 1-2 minutes.

Thirdly, when performing joint gymnastics, blood and lymph circulation increases, local temperature rises, metabolism occurs more intensely, which helps to increase the elasticity of the ligaments, tendons and fascia of the muscles attached to the joint. This makes it possible to “stretch” the tendons (in this regard, it is understandable recommendation to perform joint exercises with tension, with a certain effort) and as a consequence, “open” the muscle for further work in the asana. It is the density and elasticity of the connective tissue elements of muscle tissue, which serve as a kind of frame, that often does not allow the necessary muscle to be stretched and intensively worked.

Warm-up involves preparing muscle tissue. It is known that at rest, muscles receive about 15% of the minute blood volume (MBV). With dynamic muscle work, these indicators increase and can reach 88% of the IOC, primarily due to the opening of the “reserve” capillaries of muscle tissue. Volume velocity blood flow increases from 4 ml/min per 100 g of muscle tissue to 100-150 ml/min, that is, 20-25 times (O. Wade, I.M. Bishop, 1962; J. Schemer, 1973, Dubrovsky V.I. , 1982, etc.). Blood flow increases at the beginning of the exercise, and reaches a stable level by 3 minutes, depending on the intensity of the exercise and the initial state of health.

Increased blood flow leads to an increase in the temperature of muscle tissue from 34.8 C to 38.5 C. An increase in temperature, in turn, reduces the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen and promotes its (oxygen) release from chemical bonds. And while the speed of blood flow will increase by 20 times, aerobic metabolism in the muscles can increase by 100 times due to an increase in oxygen utilization from 20-25% to 80%.

Some stages of glycolysis and glycogenolysis, oxidative processes that provide working muscles with energy, are sensitive to temperature increases. Consequently, as the temperature rises, the rate of oxidative processes and the supply of energy to the muscle will increase.

Thus, preliminary dynamic load contributes to the most effective blood supply to the muscles, which contributes to deep study muscle tissue in asanas, without switching to anaerobic energy supply. This prevents the formation of lactic acid and the occurrence of sore throat.

The impact of dynamic warm-up on cardiorespiratory system comes down to improving performance external respiration, heart rate, stroke volume, minute volume of blood, blood pressure and stabilization of these indicators at a new level.

For the most harmonious and complete integration of the body into the activity, it is advisable involvement of more than 2/3 of the entire body muscles. Therefore, the warm-up should include general exercises for uniform training of the main muscle groups. If you want to prepare any zone more carefully, you can add special exercises .

From here you can roughly calculate duration of proper warm-up– to work out large joints and major muscle groups, increase and stabilize cardiorespiratory parameters, you will need at least 15-20 minutes. The duration of the dynamic load will depend on the body’s fitness: the more trained a person is, the less time it takes to get into the basic mode.

All of the above processes affect the state of the nervous system, helping to achieve optimal excitability.

Criterion for the correctness and sufficiency of the performed warm-up for a healthy person - a feeling of warmth, heat throughout the body, the appearance of sweat. This indicates a transition of metabolism to new level; sweating helps to establish the required level of thermoregulation and better ensure excretory functions. The listed effects correlate with the signs of stimulation of the etheric body described in treatises on yoga.

To maintain the state achieved during warm-up, the rest interval before the next main complex should not exceed 10 - 15 minutes.

So, the basic rules for warming up:

1. Warm-up should involve at least 2/3 of the total muscle mass and last at least 15 – 20 minutes

2. The warm-up should have a general and a special part (if necessary, work on a specific area)

3. An obligatory part of the warm-up is joint gymnastics, with treatment of all large joints

4. Joint work should be done with additional tension.

5. The duration of work on one joint should be at least 1 minute

6. The criterion for correctly performing a warm-up is a feeling of warmth, heat in the body, and the appearance of sweating

7. The transition time from warm-up to the main complex should not exceed 10 – 15 minutes.

The desire to improve their health is the main reason why people turn to yoga.

Let us consider from a scientific (physiological) point of view the key aspects and mechanisms of the influence of yoga on human health:

Cleansing procedures(shatkarmas) are used without fail when practicing yoga at all stages of improvement. When working with the physical body, a thorough cleansing of the entire body from waste and toxins is carried out, the intestines, sinuses, tongue are cleaned, special exercises are performed for the eyes and respiratory system. When working with consciousness, all negative thoughts and emotions are eliminated, the sphere of the subconscious is cleansed of the negativity accumulated over the years, and a mood of impeccability in deeds and actions is created. This practice of internal and external cleansing very quickly begins to provide powerful support to the immune system and facilitates further steps towards healing the body and mind.

Asana practice in static and dynamic modes it affects the human body in accordance with fundamental physiological laws, activating absolutely all functional systems. The functional state of the body and health are closely interrelated processes. An indicator of the state of health of the body is not only the absence of pathological disorders, but also the level of development of adaptive changes that arise due to systematic adaptation to increased demands and, in turn, are a protective factor against extreme stress. The beneficial effects of physical activity in yoga are realized through the activation of metabolism in the process of adaptation to the practice of asanas. During the adaptation process, changes occur in all organs and systems that are in one way or another involved in the management and provision of energy to working muscles:

– the musculoskeletal system is optimally trained,

- strengthens the heart and blood vessels,

— the reserves of the cardiorespiratory system are revealed,

— autonomic nervous regulation is improved,

- the hormonal and nervous systems begin to work more harmoniously and harmoniously.

As a result, practitioners of even the initial stages of hatha yoga experience a new quality of psychosomatic balance, when diseases that were the result of a negative psycho-emotional state and slagging of the body begin to disappear. In parallel with this, the tasks of strengthening muscles, increasing their elasticity and endurance, and improving the flexibility of the spine are solved. And this is the basis for good health, high performance and, ultimately, excellent mood and optimistic attitude, which create a feeling of health.

Our body is an integral system. High performance, good health, absence of diseases - is possible only if in not a single cell of the body, organ or system there are areas where the genetic code is damaged, the innervation or supply of oxygen, hormones, amino acids, etc. is disrupted, and the cells in general have high reserve capacity in case of “unforeseen circumstances”. However, certain damages and deviations from normal functioning in different parts of the body occur constantly. This is primarily due to the body’s reaction to stressful situations. Everyday life, study and work. The body, in response to a stressful situation, reacts by activating the sympathoadrenal system, which leads to the release of stress hormones into the blood, which should stimulate the body to take active action (fight for survival or escape). If neither one nor the other occurs and a person does not respond to a stress factor with any physical activity, then in his body these same stress hormones destroy the membranes of those organs that have been weakened due to genetic characteristics, poor ecology, injuries or lifestyle. As a result, we usually end up with diseases of the cardiovascular system, gastrointestinal tract, autonomic nervous disorders or musculoskeletal diseases.

07.06.2011

It is science, in modern conditions, that is an important factor determining progressive transformations in any sphere of human activity, including yoga, as one of the most methodologically carefully developed systems of human self-improvement.

Under scientific approach we will mean considering yoga in the aspect of sciences that most thoroughly study the work of the human body and psyche, such as: physiology (studies the structure and patterns of functioning of the physical body), biomechanics (studies the possibilities of optimizing the functioning of the musculoskeletal system), psychology (studies the structure and patterns functioning of the psyche). However, it is worth noting that human capabilities have not been thoroughly studied not only by these sciences, but by all the others combined. Indeed, until now, scientists are unanimous in the opinion that they have discovered only an insignificant part of the true knowledge about the human being.

Physiological aspects of yoga contribute to a deeper understanding of the essence of the impact of hatha yoga exercises, first of all, as a therapeutic system and are prerequisites for building a scientific foundation for health-improving effects on humans. Let us consider, from a physiological point of view, the basic mechanisms of functioning human body as a result of the use of classical eight-step yoga (yama-niyama-asana-pranayama-pratyahara-dharana-dhiyana-samadhi).

From a natural science perspective, yoga appears as a method of self-discipline. In a physiological sense, we are talking about a certain system of teaching methods of conscious control and regulation of motor, sensory, vegetative and mental activity. In this case, a conscious influence on somatic and mental functions is carried out, coinciding with conscious “self-recognition”, “experience” of the function. The goal of yogic practice can be seen both in an intensive and precise study of the inner world of a person, and in the implementation of practices and lifestyles that lead the body to a situational and constitutional optimum. In this sense, it would be legitimate to define yoga as individually practiced and subjectively experienced “therapeutic physiology.”

The human body has about 200 segments of striated muscle, each of which is surrounded by fascia, which turns into a tendon and is attached to the bone. In addition, at the points of articulation of bones - joints, there are ligaments that form joint capsules. Each such segment has receptors through which the central nervous system receives appropriate information about the strength and nature of irritation (excitation). The immediate localization of this irritation is the cerebral cortex.

Thus, stimulating certain muscle groups, using static and dynamic training modes, as well as stretching and relaxing muscles, using motor actions and asanas, an indirect effect on the central nervous system becomes possible. Stimulation of certain areas of the cerebral cortex affects the thought process and associated feelings and emotions. Mental activity, in turn, affects both the skeletal and smooth muscle muscles of the internal organs. In addition, certain body positions affect the endocrine system, which is also manifested in the corresponding reactions of the body. The use of various means and methods of working with the musculoskeletal system allows one to achieve the necessary functional reactions and states of the human body in order to perform or solve the corresponding tasks.

Speaking in the language of physiology, there is an impact on the functional state of the central nervous system, therefore the regulation of the mental and physiological functions of the body is carried out. Due to this, a person can subjectively diagnose his psychological and physical conditions, as well as the implementation of appropriate programs for their correction. This process of self-knowledge makes it possible to bring a human being to a new stage of evolutionarily significant changes and, as a consequence, to more high level realization of personality.

First two steps classical yoga (Yama and Niyama) are represented by rules of behavior that are found unchanged in all schools of yoga. Moreover, they have also become generally accepted moral precepts for all those who, although not practicing yoga, live in the Indian cultural traditions of Hinduism, Buddhism or Jainism, and, apparently, only the purification precepts are not observed as strictly as in yoga . At first glance, it seems that Yama and Niyama are not directly related to physiology. However, in the sense of a holistic consideration of the eco-socio-psycho-somatic organization of life, some of these prescriptions have points of contact with physiology. For purely medical areas of activity in which psychotherapeutic, psychohygienic, socio-medical or physio-dietological aspects are important, tempting prospects may be hidden here.

Prescriptions of Yama and Niyama from a physiological point of view have an energy-saving effect on human psychosomatics and help in any circumstances to maintain the regime of optimal energy-informational relationships with the World and with oneself. The level of stress hormones is noticeably reduced as a result of persistent practice of the first two steps of yoga. In addition, Yama covers all subsequent stages of yoga or prepares for them, and Niyama, through practices of cleansing the physical body, promotes active mechanical stimulation of the mucous membranes, thereby causing revitalization of visceral functions, reduces susceptibility to pathogenic factors and reduces the reactivity of the mucous membranes, promoting hardening.

From a physiological point of view, the practice of internal and external cleansing very quickly begins to provide powerful support to the immune system and facilitates further steps towards healing and improving the body and mind.

Asana is the third stage of classical yoga, represented by poses. This step is perhaps the most popular due to its detailed development in Hatha Yoga.

Many asanas deform the body cavities, in particular the thoracic and abdominal ones, which leads to a change in pressure and, accordingly, volume. At the same time, in those lobes of the lungs that are in the expandable area chest, the alveoli expand more, i.e. there the area of ​​gas and blood exchange increases.

Under the influence of asanas, the consequences of abdominal deformation will be completely different. Retractions and protrusions of the abdomen, wave-like contractions of the abdominal muscles in the horizontal and vertical plane lead to activation of the abdominal region of the nerve plexuses located deep inside the abdominal cavity, which activates the parasympathetic department of the autonomic nervous system, as a result of which manifestations of psycho-emotional stress disappear and the person becomes calm and balanced.

Many yoga asanas stimulate gastrointestinal motility and affect blood circulation. Regarding the gastrointestinal tract as a whole, the following conclusion can be drawn: changes in pressure accompanying stretching (twisting) of the torso, first of all, lead to stretching of the muscles of the intestinal wall. Conditioned by asanas, as well as bandhas, mechanical effects on the digestive tract can, first of all, stimulate intestinal motility and normalize the functioning of the gastrointestinal tract.

Along with changes in cardiac activity and blood pressure as part of the overall energetic adaptation of the blood circulation, asanas influence blood circulation through changes in three mechanical quantities: pressure inside the body cavities, hydrostatic pressure and possible local pressure fluctuations due to the biomechanical position of the limbs. These influences can affect, on the one hand, hemodynamics in the systemic or regional circulation, and, on the other hand, fluid exchange in the microcirculation area.

As a result, there is an increase in the number of blood cells and increased lymphatic outflow, which has a beneficial effect on the condition of muscles, internal organs and the hormonal system. As a result, immunity increases, the level of endurance of the body and resistance to adverse environmental influences increases.

Biomechanical principles of asana practice and kriyas can be traced in the following aspects of the influence of hatha yoga on the functional state and motor activity of a person:

Firstly, in humans, when adapting to the environment, all the infinite variety of brain activity is finally reduced to just one phenomenon - muscle movement. To realize this phenomenon, the body has a powerful muscular system, part of the musculoskeletal system, which uses various forms of activity - dynamic, static and tonic. All levels of the central nervous system and hormonal apparatus are involved in the process of combining and regulating all forms of motor activity: the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system, cerebellum, brain stem and spinal cord. The involvement of all levels of the central nervous system in the implementation of motor adaptation is an indicator of the multifaceted significance of yoga exercises for the life of the body.

Secondly, motor activity manifested during the practice of asanas and kriyas of hatha yoga is a genetically determined biological need. Satisfying the need for movement is as vital as any other, for example, for food, water, etc. The purpose of any need is to encourage the body to satisfy it. Consequently, the need for motor activity, performing an incentive function, ensures the interaction of the body with the environment and contributes to the improvement of forms of adaptation (adaptation) to changing environmental conditions.

Third, systematic physical activity of hatha yoga is an effective universal training factor that causes favorable functional, biochemical and structural changes in the body. Global coaching influence physical activity due to the fact that the body reacts to it according to the principle of systematicity, involving adaptation mechanisms in the process: neurohumoral regulation, executive organs and autonomic support.

Fourthly, deep systemic and local transformations in the body during the practice of physical exercises of hatha yoga are associated with the decisive role of the functions of the genetic apparatus of the cells responsible for the implementation of movement. The result of systematic training of the body and mind is an increase in mitochondria (energy ultrastructures of the cell) of nerve and muscle cells and energy potential skeletal muscles. The same positive morphofunctional changes occur in the mechanisms of nervous and humoral regulation, as well as in the circulatory, respiratory, and excretory systems. The end result of these transformations is increased vitality of the body and improved health.

And fifthly, positive effect Yoga exercises have two aspects: specific, manifested in the body’s endurance to physical activity, and nonspecific, expressed in increased resistance to other environmental factors and diseases. This determines the protective (preventive) function of systematic physical activity. The preventive nonspecific effect of physical activity in yoga is expressed in increased resistance to pain and negative emotions, in improved learning ability and, which is especially important for modern man, in increasing the body’s resistance to factors that cause damage to the heart and circulatory system, the appearance of which is largely facilitated by stress. Hatha yoga exercises, transferring energy exchange to an optimal and economical level, ensure high stress resistance of the body to various unfavorable factors of the biological, and especially social, environment.

Physiological prerequisites for the beneficial effects of pranayama on the human body and psyche are caused, first of all, by the reflex effect of air passing through the nasal sinuses on many systems and organs of the human body. In addition, excursion of the diaphragm (with deep “abdominal” breathing) is an additional massage of the abdominal organs.

Rare complete and deep breathing increases the amplitude of changes in the partial tension of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood, which helps relax the smooth muscles of blood vessels and improves nutrition of the tissues of the nervous system, internal organs and muscles.

Pranayama- special breathing exercises that affect the physiological component of a person by changing the concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide, as well as the emotional component, influencing it through a system of psychosomatic correspondences using specific types of breathing. Mechanisms of action breathing exercises include:

1. change in the ratio of oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations in the body;

2. activation during the breathing process various groups respiratory muscles;

3. reflex effect on the brain through influence on olfactory and other receptors;

4. massage of internal organs;

5. reflex effect on the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.

By practicing pranayamas, especially long breath holds, and energy pumping, the adaptive functions of the body expand, and consciousness becomes resistant to experiencing various altered states. In the traditional understanding, breathing exercises serve to control the receipt and distribution of prana in the body, which, on the one hand, should give harmony of body and spirit, and on the other, prepare or directly lead to spiritual meditative practices.

The concept of "meditation" Usually the stages of yoga from the fifth to the eighth (raja yoga) are combined. Due to the well-known similarity with Japanese Zen and similar schools, many different Eastern psychotechniques are summarized under the same term. Through meditation, a person clears his consciousness and harmonizes psychosomatics. Modern medicine confirms that meditation can improve mental focus, effectively eliminate stress and even alleviate chronic diseases.

Meditation strengthens the immune system against a number of diseases, including influenza, hypertension, asthma, spastic colitis, psoriasis and even cancer. This is the result of ten years of research carried out by America's leading neurosurgeons at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), the temple of the world's most advanced science, located in Cambridge in the suburbs of Boston.

Meditation reduces the activity of a certain part of the brain, namely the right prefrontal cortex, which is associated with negative emotions - anxiety, anger, fear - and depression. People who meditate regularly develop more antibodies that fight off infections such as flu and colds because the left prefrontal cortex, which is associated with positive emotions, they are more active.

Many researchers note a decrease in breathing rate and heart rate in a meditative state, which indicates the body’s transition to a trophotropic state. The latter is characterized by activation of the parasympathetic nervous system, and therefore helps relieve stress. Deep meditation has therapeutic effect due to the fact that it: a) is, from a physiological point of view, the complete opposite of the sympathetic stress reaction; b) contributes to the normalization of the psychophysiological functioning of the body.

A scientific approach to understanding yoga serves as a guarantor of a competent attitude towards one’s own practice and a guarantee of a high level of training for specialists teaching yoga, because relies exclusively on the objective fundamental laws of the existence and activity of a human being.

Yoga physiology studies the influence of hatha yoga techniques on the physiological components of a person.

Every day there is an increasing interest in the study of hatha yoga in the world. The hatha yoga system is based on various techniques of working with the body - asana (body position, shape, position) and pranayama (breathing practices and breath holding), the main purpose of which is a specific effect on the human body. One of the goals of the hatha yoga system is perfect health and increasing human life expectancy through a complex effect on the organs and systems of the body.

The physiology of yoga explores questions of this type:

• The influence of yoga techniques on the ANS
• The influence of yoga techniques on the cardiovascular system
• Physiology of meditation practices
• Traditional methods of psychophysical self-improvement and others

More detailed information and some studies on the physiology of yoga you can see in the corresponding section.

It is most correct to consider the influence of hatha yoga methods on 3 planes. As one of the greatest teachers of our time, Swami Satyanda Saraswati, said as an example: “Yoga asana acts on 3 levels of a person: physical, psychological and spiritual.”

Effect on physiology:

Muscles and joints, nervous and endocrine, respiratory and excretory systems, as well as the circulatory system are coordinated in such a way as to support and facilitate the functioning of each other. Asanas increase the adaptive functions of the body, make the body strong and flexible. They maintain the body in optimal condition, promote the recovery of diseased organs and rejuvenate the body as a whole.

On the psyche:

Asanas make the mind strong, able to overcome pain and adversity. They develop determination, focus and confidence. During regular practice Asana poise becomes a normal state of mind. You can face all the problems of the world, all the worries and sorrows with absolute calm. The mind calms down, the colors of life become brighter, and difficulties turn into a means of achieving perfect mental health. The practice of asanas awakens dormant energies, which cause others to feel a sense of trust and desire for the person radiating them. There is an expansion of consciousness, a person is able to see himself and the world around him.

Yoga – asana and spirituality:

Asanas are the third step of the eight-step path of Raja Yoga, and in this aspect, asanas prepare the body and mind for higher yoga practices, namely: pratyahara - abstraction of the senses from objects, dharana - concentration, dhyana - meditation and samadhi - the achievement of cosmic consciousness. Classic texts on hatha yoga: “Hatha Yoga Pradipika” and “Gheranda Samhita”. And although asanas by themselves cannot provide spiritual enlightenment, they are nevertheless an important part of the spiritual path. Some people believe that asanas are just physical exercise, having no connection with spiritual development. This is a completely wrong point of view. For those who seek to awaken and develop their psychic abilities, asanas are an almost inevitable necessity!

That is, in the physiological aspect we are talking about considering the methods of yoga on the human body and the development of conscious control and regulation of motor, sensory, vegetative and other physiological activities, i.e. a conscious impact on somatic and mental functions.

The human body has about 200 segments of striated muscle, each of which is surrounded by fascia, which turns into a tendon and is attached to the bone. In addition, at the points of articulation of bones - joints, there are ligaments that form joint capsules.

Each such segment has receptors through which the central nervous system receives appropriate information about the strength and nature of irritation (excitation). The immediate localization of this irritation is the cerebral cortex.

Thus, by stimulating certain muscle groups, using static and dynamic modes of operation, as well as stretching and relaxing muscles, with the help of motor actions and postures, an indirect effect on the central nervous system becomes possible.

Stimulation of certain areas of the cerebral cortex (cortico-visceral interaction) affects the thought process and associated feelings and emotions. Mental activity, in turn, affects both the skeletal and smooth muscle muscles of the internal organs.

In addition, certain body positions affect the endocrine system, which is also manifested in the corresponding reactions of the body. The use of various means and methods of working with the musculoskeletal system allows one to achieve the necessary functional reactions and states of the human body in order to perform or solve the corresponding tasks.

In physiological terms, there is an impact on the functional state of the central nervous system, that is, on mental and physiological functions body. Using this knowledge and capabilities, a person can correct various dysfunctions of his body.

This process of self-knowledge makes it possible to bring a human being to a new stage of evolutionarily significant changes and, as a consequence, a higher level of personality realization. However, the practical achievement of these changes, such as spinal correction or relief from chronic stress, requires special knowledge and must be implemented gradually. At first, it is necessary to practice under the supervision of a qualified specialist who will be able to monitor the correctness of implementation and adapt personal practice complexes to changes in the body’s condition.

It is traditionally believed that hatha yoga asanas can be practiced at any age, even into old age. The followers of the system were able to purely empirically, by summarizing centuries of experience, discover the basic general biological pattern: correctly selected and dosed functional load, with regular systematic repetition in the form of exercises, shapes and improves the body, its tissues, organs and systems.

Hatha yoga classes contribute to the acquisition of skills deep relaxation, which also has a beneficial effect on the emotional sphere, developing stress resistance over time. Psycho-emotional stability training gives a person the opportunity to even consciously reduce pain.

Dietrich Ebert. PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF YOGA.. 1

PREFACE TO THE GERMAN EDITION... 1

1. INTRODUCTION. 2

1.2. Construction of classical yoga. 5

1.3. Traditional idea of ​​the human body. 8

1.4. Yoga and physiology. 9

2. YAMA and NIYAMA.. 10

3. ASANA (POSE). 16

3.2. Mechanically determined effects of asanas on internal organs.. 20

3.3.Effects on blood circulation. 24

3.4. Functional and energetic aspects of asanas. 31

3.5. Biomechanical aspects of asanas. 38

3.6. Somatosensory effects of asanas. 40

3.7. Sensorimotor aspects of asanas. 42

4. PRANAYAMA.. 48

4.1.Theories of prana.. 48

4.2.Pranayama techniques.. 50

4.3. Breathing forms and parameters of pranayamas.. 52

4.4. Energy exchange in pranayama. 59

4.6. The role of breathing in the human body. 61

5. MEDITATION. 71

5.2. Meditation techniques.. 72

5.3. Physiological effects of meditation.. 75

5.4.Psychophysiological significance of meditation.. 91

7. CONCLUSION. 103

8. GLOSSARY.. 104

9. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 108

PREFACE TO THE GERMAN EDITION

Dietrich Ebert, HD

The wide spread and popularity of yoga indicate a growing need in society for what is commonly called “anti-stress”, “relaxation”, “self-control” or “the ability to concentrate”. Hence the need for a scientific assessment of this phenomenon also arises. In many countries, attempts of this kind have already been made, more or less confirmed by relevant data (see, for example, Vigh (1970) in Hungary, Mukerji and Spiegelhoff (1971) in Germany, Funderburk (1977) in the USA). This book is addressed to doctors, biologists, psychologists, psychotherapists; it summarizes the data available to the author, mainly from a physiological point of view. Elementary information from the practice of yoga is assumed to be known, so this book It is in no way an introduction to the practice of yoga, much less a guide to the exercises.
Although the publications available today are often poorly connected with each other, and many of the measured values ​​are not accompanied by any physiological commentary, and some studies were even carried out carelessly (which is indicated in the appropriate places on occasion), nevertheless, in this book the author tried to give a closed description and physiological assessment of the issues involved.
Each chapter opens with a brief introduction to the relevant physiological problem for those who are familiar in principle with human physiology, but are not specialists in this field. For those wishing to gain a deeper understanding of the physiological basis, references to additional literature are provided in the appropriate places. A more detailed presentation of physiological issues would be beyond the scope of this book.
It should be especially emphasized that we are talking here only about selected “aspects”, outside of which there are points of view that are not discussed here, but are quite worthy of attention within the framework of this topic. This is especially true for other areas of medicine. It would be highly desirable to gain a deeper understanding of yoga over time, for example from the point of view of clinical medicine or psychotherapy. The selection of aspects proposed here should therefore serve as a stimulus for the further accumulation of data and, accordingly, for the conduct of new research, thereby contributing to the scientific development of this great heritage of world culture.
For numerous fruitful discussions, criticisms and corrections, I sincerely thank my friends and colleagues Dr. P. Lessig, Dr. W. Fritzsche and Dr. Z. Waurik. I also sincerely thank the ethnologist Mr. G. Kucharski for numerous references on Indological issues, which occupy a significant place in the text, often without any references. My special thanks also go to my wife, Dagmar Ebert, for their mutual understanding and support in my work.

Dietrich Ebert

INTRODUCTION

D. Ebert. Physiologische Aspekte des Yoga / Translation from German Minvaleeva R.S.

Definition of yoga

The history of yoga in Indian culture goes back thousands of years. Already in pre-Aryan India (approximately 2500 - 1800 BC) the first images of yogis are found. After the Aryan invasion of North India around 1000 B.C. Indo-Aryan culture formed in the Ganges River valley. Even before its first flowering, around 500-100 BC, the Vedas (Hymns of “knowledge”) were written down. These are the oldest written monuments of the Indo-European languages ​​that have survived to our time (Rig Veda, about 1000 BC). The Upanishads, philosophical commentaries on the Vedas, date back to a somewhat later time. From the wealth of thought imprinted in them, over time, six great Brahminical darshanas (philosophical systems) were formed: Mimamsa, Vedanta, Sankhya, Yoga, Vaisheshika and Nyaya.

Thus, yoga as one of the philosophical schools came to us from the last third of the 1st millennium BC, being closely connected with the philosophy of Samkhya, one of the most ancient philosophical systems of India. It must be said that the concept of philosophy in ancient india in addition to theoretical understanding of the world, it also included a unique way of life (Mylius 1983). Moreover, if Sankhya philosophy had as its subject precisely the rational-theoretical interpretation of world problems, then yoga was rather a practical system of self-knowledge. However, ultimately yoga was supposed to lead to the same results as the rationalistic philosophy of Sankhya.

Both systems are based on the same cosmology and proceed from the typically brahmanical moral-causal world order, according to which every act, every action (karma), in addition to its natural meaning, has another meaning, which, regardless of space and time, but only based on the interconnection of circumstances can naturally cause and influence new circumstances. These influences can only be realized in the next life, after a new birth. Thus, this cosmology includes the doctrine of the “transmigration of souls”, the “wheel of rebirths”. Each human act has as its consequence a certain confluence of circumstances arising from the principle of moral responsibility, and in such a way as to obtain the least sad rebirth possible, as well as to reduce or completely eliminate suffering already in real life, you need a correct understanding of cause-and-effect relationships and a correct lifestyle - which is what turning to yoga gives.

The world order in the dualistic and atheistic philosophy of Sankhya is explained by reducing everything that exists in the world to two principles:

1. Pramatter (Prakriti), unmanifested, formless, disordered, active, is in constant motion, devoid of spirituality and self-awareness.
2. The spiritual entity, the "soul" (Purusha), is inactive, spiritual, and self-aware.

This spiritual essence is separated from the material world of events by a deep and insurmountable abyss, which also applies to man, in whom the core of his own being opposes the objective processes occurring in him as an alienated and indifferent entity. The reason for this is that thinking (chitta) in a person (from a linguistic point of view, it is unclear how adequate the translation of “chitta” is with the word “thinking”) is a product of prakriti and, accordingly, is associated with objects of perception, that is, it perceives the form of these objects, changing thereby its own gestalt (eigene Gestalt). This is how the false identification of the soul with objects arises. To break this vicious circle, a means must be found to consciously stop the soul's false identification with objects (Chattopadhyaya 1978). And this remedy is yoga.

Through yoga, our ignorance (avidya) regarding the essence of purusha and prakriti is eliminated and thereby liberation from suffering is achieved. Deliverance from suffering in this case means a certain state (enlightenment) obtained through knowledge, which annuls the action of Karma leading to suffering and frees the soul from the circle of rebirths. The difference from European ideas about the paths of deliverance is probably that this path is realized primarily through self-knowledge, and it does not necessarily require any ritual actions with a personified deity (“atheistic religion”?).

In the strictly atheistic Samkhya system, liberation is brought by rational knowledge and a virtuous lifestyle, while in yoga, liberation is realized through meditation and self-knowledge, and yoga, unlike Samkhya, is characterized by some theistic component, which, apparently, psychologically facilitates the realization of liberation ( see chapter 2). However, to Indologists this theistic component seems artificial (Frauwallner 1953, Glasenapp 1949). Theism does not correspond to the Samkhya worldview and can be considered an alien element in relation to yoga. From the point of view of philosophical content, there is nothing fundamentally new in yoga compared to the philosophy of Samkhya. Yoga only brings an in-depth understanding of psychology and the mechanism of the liberation process. So it is hardly legitimate to consider yoga as an independent philosophical system, but it would be more accurate to consider it a practice of the Samkhya theory (Frauwallner 1953, Chattopadhyaya 1978). The psychological mechanism of liberating enlightenment is considered on the basis of “mystical physiology” (see 1.3).

This yoga, oriented towards the path of practical self-knowledge, found its classical formulations in Patanjali's Yoga Sutra (ca. 200 BC). Sutras are sayings that are in the nature of axiomatic statements, which to a certain extent form the quintessence of the teaching. Each of the six Brahminical darshanas has its own fundamental sutras formulated in the form of axioms. As for the Yoga Sutras, it consists of four books:

1. Concentration
2. Concentration practice
3. Psychic powers
4. Liberation

The first book explains the so-called yoga of submission (see Chapter 5), and the second and third books explain the classic eightfold path. Finally, the fourth book sets out the philosophical and esoteric aspects of yoga. Without commentary to the uninitiated, the meaning of these sayings is unclear, since in ancient India all types of philosophy were considered “secret teachings”, for a more complete understanding of which a lot of additional information transmitted exclusively orally is required (Mylius 1983). Something has also been formulated that can only be understood through one’s own experience. Finally, a prior acquaintance with Samkhya cosmology is necessary for correct understanding. The first and most important commentary on the Yoga Sutra is the Yoga Bhasya, written by Vyasa.

Like all Brahmanical systems, the school of yoga in subsequent times was also provided with very detailed commentaries and additions. Further, already in the early Middle Ages, some significant changes in methodology were discovered, and a great many subtypes and variants of yoga emerged. Numerous schools of yoga differ in the characteristics of the technique of performing exercises, in their approaches to the problem of spiritual and physical self-improvement and, accordingly, in the objects of concentration.

Table 1. Some of the famous forms of yoga

Yoga forms	The original object of spiritual self-improvement, respectively, the subject of concentration exercises (Evans-Wentz 1937)
Hatha yoga	Body functions, breathing
Mantra yoga	The sound of syllables or words
Yantra yoga	Geometric figures
Karma yoga	Actions and selfless activities
Kriya yoga	Physical and spiritual cleansing
Tantra yoga	Psychic experiments
Jnana yoga	Knowledge, cognition
Laya yoga	Strength of will
Bhakti yoga	Divine love, dedication
Kundalini yoga	Esoteric ideas

In Europe, hatha yoga has gained popularity, which literally means “yoga of the Sun and Moon” (more precisely, “Combination of solar and lunar breathing” - Evans-Wentz 1937) and is often translated as “yoga of body control,” although, of course, this also includes spiritual practices. The most important classical texts on hatha yoga are the Hathayogapradipika, Shivasamhita and Gherandasamhita, which appeared in the 11th-17th centuries AD. (Kucharski 1977). Gorakshanath and Matsyendranath are considered the founders of hatha yoga.

Yoga was transferred to other countries, especially in East Asia, where, in particular, their own schools of yoga were formed. (Evans-Wentz 1937), moreover, new forms of culture arose, such as Zen in Japan (see 5.1). For centuries in Asia, and especially in India, yoga has remained a living practice and can still be found today in its traditional forms (Brunton 1937, Vivekananda 1937, Ananda 1980).

In the current century, this modern and relevant yoga for us has become widespread in Europe and America, which has led to the emergence of a number of its Europeanized forms under mottos such as: “Yoga and Christianity”, “Yoga and Sports”, “Yoga and Medicine”. The abundance of forms, the intervention of European cults and philosophical ideas gave rise to that variety of exotic sects, in which it is difficult to recognize “yoga in itself.”

1.2. Construction of classical yoga

When analyzing all the variety of subtypes of yoga that we have to deal with today all over the world, it turns out, as well as when considering other traditional Indian schools, that the core and methodological basis Yoga will always have a famous eightfold path. The first five steps (anga) are called Kriya Yoga (practical yoga), and the sixth to eighth steps are called Raja Yoga (royal yoga). The specific expansion of any one of the first five steps, or, equally, only parts of them, gave rise to many subtypes of yoga.

1. Intensive improvement, especially of the third and fourth stages, led to hatha yoga, which, due to the numerous and difficult variety of poses, is also called “body yoga” or “strong yoga.” The following basic components are common to all types of yoga:
2. Available code of conduct(set out in the first and second stages), which formally determines a person’s attitude to society and to himself.
3. Yogic praxis is always associated with conscious execution physical and mental exercises that are done regularly.
4. The execution of all elements of the exercise must be accompanied by conscious mental focus.
5. Setting the consciousness to some passivity(for example, during self-observation of breathing using the formula “I should breathe,” etc.) is a psychological technique that is different from “active concentration” (for example, when doing mental calculations), and creates a psychological basis for mental concentration.

The classical eightfold path is expounded in principle in the second and third books of Patanjali's Yoga Sutras. Since we are giving the most concise presentation, only the sutras dedicated to this topic will be quoted here:

Eight limb yoga

II/29 Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi - the eight steps of yoga.

I am a step

II/30 Non-killing, truthfulness, non-stealing, abstinence and non-greed are called Yama(The literal translation of “Yama” means: discipline, commandment). II/31 These commandments, not limited by time, place, circumstances and caste laws, are a great vow.

I am a step

II/32 Internal and external purification, contentment, mortification, study and service to God are Niyama.(Niyama literally means: self-discipline; instead of mortification, the concept of “asceticism” is often used).

I am a step

II/46 motionless and comfortable position there is an asana.(Initially, only sitting poses could be called asana, since at the time of Patanjali many other poses were still unknown).

I am a step

II/49 This is followed by mastering the movements of inhalation and exhalation (Pranayama). II/53 The mind becomes capable of Dharana. (Pranayama literally means: “restraint of prana” or “control of energy.” By prana we mean Vital energy, - see chapter 4. - which comes through breathing and is regulated by it. Based on this, a free translation of pranayama is given by the term “regulation of breathing”).

I am a step

II/54 Detachment of the senses (Pratyahara) is achieved through disconnecting them from their own objects and simultaneously accepting the nature of mind (chitta). II/55 The result is complete mastery of the senses.(Psychologically accurate translation of the term “pratyahara”: “Lack of connection between the senses and the objects of their sphere of perception”).

I am a step

III/1 Dharana is keeping one's thinking on a specific subject.(Dharana is often simply called “concentration” or “fixation of thought”).

I am a step

III/2 If this (Dharana) forms a continuous flow of knowledge, then it is Dhyana.(Dhyana means precisely: reflection, imagination, analysis and is often translated by the term “meditation”. For the meaning of this translation, see Chapter 5.)

I am a step

III/3 If this (Dhyana), leaving behind any forms, reflects only the meaning, then this is Samadhi.(The correct translation of Samadhi is so controversial that even contradictory definitions are used for this, see Chapter 5).

I am the steps

III/4 These three, when applied to one single object, are samyama. III/5 Upon achieving this, the light of knowledge is ignited. III/12 The focus of citta on any object is achieved when the past and present impressions are the same.

The remaining sutras not quoted here explain and complement what has already been said and are of a more philosophical and didactic nature.

Even today, classical eight-step yoga is practiced in India in this full form, but at the same time they also teach one or another option. Moreover, both the number and prevalence of the above-mentioned varieties of yoga have increased significantly. Further, it became common to select individual elements or groups of exercises from the system and use them as therapeutic agents in medical practice. Many government-funded clinics and yoga institutes offer yoga therapy techniques for various groups of diseases, which are partly based on clinical experience (see Chapter 6). In addition, for preventive and hygienic purposes, yoga is included in the training programs of schools and sports institutions.

Modern European literature on yoga, consisting mainly of practical recommendations and attempts at interpretation, also contains more or less developed elements of the classical yoga system. Unfortunately, under the influence of sectarian movements and commercial interests, the original content of yoga that is still preserved, albeit incomplete, is often displaced into the dubious area of ​​superficial speculation. In medical practice, yoga as a system is not used, although there are many applications, primarily in the field of psychotherapy and physiotherapy.

Fig.1. Ancient Indian scheme subtle body with seven chakras and three main nadis: Ida (blue), Pingala (red) and Sushumna (straight). The symbolic content of the chakras is conveyed by the number of lotus petals.

Yoga and physiology

If we ignore all those cultural and historical forms and interpretations in which yoga was modified or included, then from a natural science perspective, what ultimately remains is some empirical knowledge that exists independently of any interpretation, in which yoga appears as a method of self-discipline. In a physiological sense, we are talking about a certain system of teaching methods of conscious control and regulation of motor, sensory, vegetative and mental activity. In this case, there is a conscious impact on somatic and mental functions, coinciding with conscious “self-recognition”, “experience” of the function.

The goal of yogic practice can be seen both in “...an intensive and precise exploration of the inner world of man...” (Scheidt 1976) and in the implementation of practices and lifestyles that lead the body to “... a situational and constitutional optimum.. .” (Schultz 1954). From mental and physical self-discipline one can expect physiologically measurable effects, as well as health-improving effects in terms of prevention and therapy. In this sense, it would be legitimate to define yoga as individually practiced and subjectively experienced “physiology.” To what extent this “experienced physiology” is comparable with our European objective physiology will be the subject of subsequent discussions.

YAMA and NIYAMA

D. Ebert. Physiologische Aspekte des Yoga / Translation from German Minvaleeva R.S.

The first two stages of classical yoga are represented by rules of behavior that are found unchanged in all schools of yoga. Moreover, they have also become generally accepted moral precepts for all those who, although not practicing yoga, live in the Indian cultural traditions of Hinduism, Buddhism or Jainism, and, apparently, only the purification precepts are not observed as strictly as in yoga . At first glance, it seems that Yama and Niyama are not directly related to physiology. However, in the sense of a holistic consideration of the eco-socio-psycho-somatic organization of life, some of these prescriptions have points of contact with physiology. For purely medical areas of activity in which psychotherapeutic, psychohygienic, socio-medical or physio-dietological aspects are important, tempting prospects may be hidden here. Therefore, we will consider these prescriptions in a little more detail, and we will focus on the relationship with the physiology of diet and cleansing procedures.

Prescriptions of Yama and Niyama

Yama (discipline, correct lifestyle) regulates ethical relations with the outside world. The basics of the yama are partially given already in the Yoga Sutra, which we present in fragments (see source 1.2.):

II/33 To repress thoughts that interfere with yoga, you need to evoke the opposite of them.

II/34 Obstacles to yoga - murder, untruthfulness, etc., whether they are already committed, whether they have a cause or motive, due to greed, anger or ignorance, and whether they are mild, moderate or excessive - have as their effect infinite ignorance and need. This is the method of thinking the opposite.

The awakening of thoughts is attributed here with decisive significance as a mechanism for controlling behavior. This principle of “priority of spirituality” for human behavior, which must be developed in order to manage and use biological instincts, correlates with the Marxist theory of social determination of human behavior, since the content of thinking in this case depends, among other things, on social determinants.

II/35 If he (the yogi) stands firmly established in ahimsa, then in his presence all hostility ceases.

This principle of non-killing (ahimsa) is broadly understood as the principle of non-violence. It embodies the principle of non-violence towards all the creation of the creator, as well as compassion for all those who suffer. In its extreme form, this commandment is practiced by Jains, who sweep the road in front of them and wear a scarf on their faces so as not to accidentally kill any insect.

II/36 If the yogi is completely established in truthfulness, then he gets the opportunity for himself and for others to reap the fruits of labor without effort.

Truthfulness (satyam) is understood here as comprehensively as described above (II/34). This has the following relation to physiology. When a non-truth is told, then in order to maintain social credibility, another, parallel model containing a lie must be added to the intrasubjective model of behavior. With this parallel model, which has no correspondence in reality, every real situation has to be compared and reconciled in order to be able to exist in society as an integral person. This requires overstrain of mental activity and overexpenditure of mental energy, which prevents spontaneous behavior and direct regulation of relationships with the outside world.

II/37 If a yogi is strengthened in non-theft, then all treasures flock to him.

Non-theft (asteyam) also includes the renunciation of any claim to another's property. This should generate an unshakable self-awareness.

II/38 Through consolidation in abstinence, strength is acquired.

This succinct statement is reminiscent of the psychoanalytic theory of sublimation, according to which sexual attraction can act as a spiritual force if it is directed towards non-sexual goals. In other words, the force aimed at satisfying sexual needs is used for non-sexual actions, “sublimated” in non-sexual behavior. The commonality with sutra II/38 is that sexual attraction (Libido) is understood here as force or as psychic energy.

II/39 If he has strengthened himself in non-greed, he will receive the memory of a past existence.

Aparigraha is often translated as absence of greed.

Niyama (self-discipline, limitation) regulates the attitude towards oneself:

II/41 The purity of sattva (joy, knowledge) also arises,
cheerful disposition, concentration, subordination of the senses and the ability to self-realize.

The most important and voluminous component of Niyama are purification practices (Kriya, see Chapter 2.2.), which, however, are not explained in the Yoga Sutra, but appear in later texts, sometimes they can also be found in connection with pranayama or in mudras.

II/42 From contentment comes the highest happiness.

Satisfaction (santosha) with what exactly happens or how exactly an event happens can be trained by taking into account only the positive aspects contained in everything and ignoring the negative aspects. In this case, it is initially accepted that every event contains both aspects, and then the negative aspects are learned in interaction with one’s own personality.

II/43 As a result of asceticism, hidden powers are imparted to the senses and body through the removal of impurities.

Asceticism, often defined as strictness (tapas) - one of the prescriptions of self-discipline - covers all subsequent stages of yoga or prepares for them. It's about training willpower through the practice of overcoming your own needs. Asceticism includes, for example, periods of fasting, during which there is resistance to the needs of nutrition, sexual abstinence, as well as periods of social isolation (loneliness) in order to resist the needs of communication and social contacts. Experiencing physical pain is also common.
Niyama includes study of texts, devotion to a god, or worship of a guru. Of course, the study of texts restores the relationship with cultural tradition.
Loving self-surrender became the main goal of bhakti yoga (cf. Bhagavad Gita, c. 400 BC). In this case, what is significant is not the object of veneration, but the actual fact of veneration, i.e. the practice of self-giving towards anyone.

Yoga diet

All yoga schools give special recommendations on the quantity and quality of nutrition, which are not mentioned by Patanjali and also cannot be attributed to one or another stage of the eightfold path. These recommendations are summarized by Kuvalayananda and Vinekar (1963) as follows:

1. Avoiding overeating, establishing the individually required amount of calories.

2. Following a dairy-vegetable diet (without eating meat, but without a ban on all “animals”)

3. Eating food poor in proteins (no eggs) and salt.

It is assumed that yogic practices stimulate the parasympathetic department of the autonomic nervous system, and as a result, especially in beginners, compensatory hyperactivation of the sympathetic-adrenal system occurs, to neutralize the undesirable consequences of which there is a need for a low-protein diet with limited salt.

4. Avoidance of all stimulants, such as strong spices and drugs.

A number of dietary recommendations are based mainly on the traditions of Ayurveda. Ayurveda (ca. 200 AD) is a system of ancient Indian medicine, which also contains information on biologically active substances (pharmacy) and diet. Here you can see a lot in common with ancient Chinese ideas regarding health and diet, where the goal is achieved by a well-balanced diet. Following these dietary recommendations in selected cases could be a worthy task for clinical biochemistry.

The dietary recommendation to avoid meat, according to Kuvalayananda and Vinekar (1963), goes back to the well-known idea that meat contains less vital energy because the animal has already used it up. As a result, there is even less energy left in the meat of carnivores than in the meat of herbivores. Most vital energy, therefore, can be obtained from plants (according to the ancient Hindus, primitive society was a vegetarian society). It is assumed that this recommendation is due to tradition. For example, the Eskimos, who do not have the opportunity to consume plants, have adapted to eating meat. In new (primarily European) yoga schools, vegetarian cuisine is justified by the fact that with its help only good morals and virtue are developed. Eating meat gives rise to aggressiveness and, as a consequence, destructive stereotypes of behavior. From the point of view of the physiology of nutrition, nothing definite can be said about this, since the relationship between behavior patterns or such elements of the psyche as moods, affects, mental activity, etc. has not yet been studied. with the composition of food products consumed. The next argument in favor of refusing meat food is that eating meat is immoral, since in order to obtain food in this case the ethical commandment of ahimsa (non-killing) is violated. To this, from a general biological point of view, one could argue that plants are also living beings. Further, with the mass keeping of livestock by people, an ethically complex problem arises: all those animals that are intended for processing for meat must first be raised by humans, that is, they would not exist at all if they were not used for food. The explanation that meat food in the tropics spoils very quickly also sounds convincing; in this case, the basis for the ban on eating meat will be this hygienic reason.

We do not know what psychological consequences a one-sided vegetarian diet may have, because nothing is known about the relationship between the structure of intermediate metabolism and mental functions. Here are some of the effects of a vegetarian diet on intermediate metabolism.

Purely plant foods are poor in protein and fat, so that without olives and nuts, caloric needs can only be met by large amounts of bulk food (Rapoport 1969). In addition, vegetarians do not get enough of some essential amino acids. They also show a decrease in serum globulin levels (Kanig 1973). However, a counterexample in this regard is strict vegetarians who live to an old age. Vegetarian food enriched with dairy products can already be considered complete.

Plant-based diets contain little table salt, which leads to osmotic dehydration. This, as well as the high content of vitamins, is associated with the anti-inflammatory effect of products of plant origin (Seidel, Bosseckert 1971). The pH value of the body fluid shifts towards alkaline values. Finally, it is necessary to take into account increased gas formation in the intestines due to the breakdown of cellulose, which, in turn, leads to the absorption of methane and an increase in its content in the blood.

In yoga, it is recommended to limit food intake. Eating should be completed when hunger is satisfied, a setting aimed at avoiding satiety and overeating. Temporary fasting is recommended, the effect of which is seen in increasing mental energy. During fasting, the body's own energy needs are covered by the breakdown of the body's reserves, while the level of protein in the blood remains unchanged, the content of all lipids falls, and the breakdown of muscle tissue is prevented regular training(eg, asana practice) (for more details see: Krauss 1979, Seidel, Bosseckert 1971). After overcoming the so-called hunger crisis, psychophysically beneficial results such as improved vision and a lower hearing threshold have been described (Krauss 1977). All yogis emphasize a similar increase in psychophysical indicators, and their descriptions range from “improved well-being” through “increased tone” to “abilities for expanded perception.” Systematic study and substantiation of these relationships is of significant interest.

In the clinical picture of the psychiatric disease Anorexia nervosa (neurotic lack of appetite), accompanied by chronic malnutrition, an increase in mental performance is also reported. For example, adolescents suffering from this disease are often among the highest achieving students in their age groups.

It should be noted here that any therapeutic fasting, in addition to compliance with the relevant rules, requires medical supervision. This includes, for example, control over the excretion of water and electrolytes, blood circulation, the functions of certain hormones, etc.

ASANA (POSE)

D. Ebert. Physiologische Aspekte des Yoga / Translation from German Minvaleeva R.S.

Seated poses

Padmasana * Lotus Pose
Vajrasana * Firm Pose, Heel Pose
Sukhasana * "easy pose", Tailor's Pose

Inverted poses

Viparitakarani * "inverted pose", Half stand on the shoulder blades
Sarvangasana * shoulder stand, candle pose
Sirshasana * headstand

Torso rotation

Matsyendrasana * "Matsyendranatha pose", Twisted pose
Ardhamatsyendrasana * semi-twisted pose
Vakrasana * spinal rotation

Bend the torso forward

Paschimottanasana * cross bending pose, back pose
Halasana * Plow Pose (also an inverted pose)
Yoga mudra * symbol of yoga
Yoganidrasana * sleeping pose

Bend the torso back

Matsiasana * fish pose
Bhujangasana * cobra pose
Shalabhasana * grasshopper pose
Dhanurasana * bow pose
Chakrasana * wheel pose

Balance exercises

Parvatasana * mountain pose
Kukutasana * rooster pose
Vokasana * tree pose
Bakasana * crow pose
Vrischikasana * scorpion pose
Mayurasana * peacock pose

Table 3. List of muscles contracted during the most important bandhas (according to Gopal, Lakshman 1972)

Dietrich Ebert. PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF YOGA

Original: Dietrich Ebert. Physiologische Aspekte des Yoga.- 1.Aufl.- Leipzig: Georg Thime, 1986.- 41 Abb., 30 Tab.

Abstract to the German edition:
Based on the original Indian literature, yoga from the point of view of a physiologist is described as a system of psychophysical self-development. In the introduction the author presents traditional system yoga in connection with its history and ancient Indian philosophy. Previously studied and accumulated information about physiological effects of yoga asanas, breathing exercises and meditation form the subject of subsequent chapters. The currently possible theoretical constructions of physiological processes during asanas, pranayama and concentration dives in the last chapter are reduced to overall assessment long-term effects of the practice and specific medical recommendations. The glossary explains the most important Sanskrit terms for those unfamiliar with Indology.

PREFACE TO THE GERMAN EDITION

1. INTRODUCTION

2. YAMA and NIYAMA

3. ASANA (POSE)

4. PRANAYAMA

5. MEDITATION

6. YOGA AND ADAPTATION PROCESSES

7. CONCLUSION

8. GLOSSARY

9. BIBLIOGRAPHY

PREFACE TO THE GERMAN EDITION
The wide spread and popularity of yoga indicate a growing need in society for what is commonly called “anti-stress”, “relaxation”, “self-control” or “the ability to concentrate”. Hence the need for a scientific assessment of this phenomenon also arises. In many countries, attempts of this kind have already been made, more or less confirmed by relevant data (see, for example, Vigh (1970) in Hungary, Mukerji and Spiegelhoff (1971) in Germany, Funderburk (1977) in the USA). This book is addressed to doctors, biologists, psychologists, psychotherapists; it summarizes the data available to the author, mainly from a physiological point of view. Elementary information from the practice of yoga is assumed to be known, so this book is in no way an introduction to the practice of yoga, much less a guide to the exercises.

Although the publications available today are often poorly connected with each other, and many of the measured values ​​are not accompanied by any physiological commentary, and some studies were even carried out carelessly (which is indicated in the appropriate places on occasion), nevertheless, in this book the author tried to give a closed description and physiological assessment of the issues involved.

Each chapter opens with a brief introduction to the relevant physiological problem for those who are familiar in principle with human physiology, but are not specialists in this field. For those wishing to gain a deeper understanding of the physiological basis, references to additional literature are provided in the appropriate places. A more detailed presentation of physiological issues would be beyond the scope of this book.

It should be especially emphasized that we are talking here only about selected “aspects”, outside of which there are points of view that are not discussed here, but are quite worthy of attention within the framework of this topic. This is especially true for other areas of medicine. It would be highly desirable to gain a deeper understanding of yoga over time, for example from the point of view of clinical medicine or psychotherapy. The selection of aspects proposed here should therefore serve as a stimulus for the further accumulation of data and, accordingly, for the conduct of new research, thereby contributing to the scientific development of this great heritage of world culture.

For numerous fruitful discussions, criticisms and corrections, I sincerely thank my friends and colleagues Dr. P. Lessig, Dr. W. Fritzsche and Dr. Z. Waurik. I also sincerely thank you for the numerous references on issues of Indology, which occupy a significant place in the text, often without any links, ethnologist Mr. G. Kucharski. My special thanks also go to my wife, Dagmar Ebert, for their mutual understanding and support in my work.
Dietrich Ebert

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Definition of yoga

The history of yoga in Indian culture goes back thousands of years. Already in pre-Aryan India (approximately 2500 - 1800 BC) the first images of yogis are found. After the Aryan invasion of North India around 1000 B.C. Indo-Aryan culture formed in the Ganges River valley. Even before its first flowering, around 500-100 BC, the Vedas (Hymns of “knowledge”) were written down. These are the oldest written monuments of the Indo-European languages ​​that have survived to our time (Rig Veda, about 1000 BC). The Upanishads, philosophical commentaries on the Vedas, date back to a somewhat later time. From the wealth of thought imprinted in them, over time, six great Brahminical darshanas (philosophical systems) were formed: Mimamsa, Vedanta, Sankhya, Yoga, Vaisheshika and Nyaya.

Thus, yoga as one of the philosophical schools came to us from the last third of the 1st millennium BC, being closely connected with the philosophy of Samkhya, one of the most ancient philosophical systems of India. It must be said that the concept of philosophy in ancient India, in addition to the theoretical understanding of the world, also included a unique way of life (Mylius 1983). Moreover, if Sankhya philosophy had as its subject precisely the rational-theoretical interpretation of world problems, then yoga was rather a practical system of self-knowledge. However, ultimately yoga was supposed to lead to the same results as the rationalistic philosophy of Sankhya.

Both systems are based on the same cosmology and proceed from the typically brahmanical moral-causal world order, according to which every act, every action (karma), in addition to its natural meaning, has another meaning, which, regardless of space and time, but only based on the interconnection of circumstances can naturally cause and influence new circumstances. These influences can only be realized in the next life, after a new birth. Thus, this cosmology includes the doctrine of the “transmigration of souls”, the “wheel of rebirths”. Each human act has as its consequence a certain confluence of circumstances arising from the principle of moral responsibility, and thus, in order to obtain the least sad rebirth possible, as well as to reduce or completely eliminate suffering already in this life, a correct understanding of cause-and-effect relationships and the correct image of life - which is what turning to yoga gives.

The world order in the dualistic and atheistic philosophy of Sankhya is explained by reducing everything that exists in the world to two principles:

1. 
   Pramatter (Prakriti), unmanifested, formless, disordered, active, is in constant motion, devoid of spirituality and self-awareness.
2. 
   The spiritual entity, the "soul" (Purusha), is inactive, spiritual, and self-aware.

This spiritual essence is separated from the material world of events by a deep and insurmountable chasm, which also applies to humans, in which the core of his own being opposes the objective processes occurring in him as an alienated and indifferent entity. The reason for this is that thinking (chitta) in a person (from a linguistic point of view, it is unclear how adequate the translation of “chitta” is with the word “thinking”) is a product of prakriti and, accordingly, is associated with objects of perception, that is, it perceives the form of these objects, changing thereby its own gestalt (eigene Gestalt). This is how the false identification of the soul with objects arises. To break this vicious circle, a means must be found to consciously stop the soul's false identification with objects (Chattopadhyaya 1978). And this remedy is yoga.

Through yoga, our ignorance (avidya) regarding the essence of purusha and prakriti is eliminated and thereby liberation from suffering is achieved. Deliverance from suffering in this case means a certain state (enlightenment) obtained through knowledge, which annuls the action of Karma leading to suffering and frees the soul from the circle of rebirths. The difference from European ideas about the paths of deliverance is probably that this path is realized primarily through self-knowledge, and at the same time, no ritual actions with a personified deity are required (“atheistic religion”?).

In the strictly atheistic Samkhya system, liberation is brought by rational knowledge and a virtuous lifestyle, while in yoga, liberation is realized through meditation and self-knowledge, and yoga, unlike Samkhya, is characterized by some theistic component, which, apparently, psychologically facilitates the realization of liberation ( see chapter 2). However, to Indologists this theistic component seems artificial (Frauwallner 1953, Glasenapp 1949). Theism does not correspond to the Samkhya worldview and can be considered an alien element in relation to yoga. From the point of view of philosophical content, there is nothing fundamentally new in yoga compared to the philosophy of Samkhya. Yoga only brings an in-depth understanding of psychology and the mechanism of the liberation process. So it is hardly legitimate to consider yoga as an independent philosophical system, but it would be more accurate to consider it a practice of the Samkhya theory (Frauwallner 1953, Chattopadhyaya 1978). The psychological mechanism of liberating enlightenment is considered on the basis of “mystical physiology” (see 1.3).

This yoga, oriented towards the path of practical self-knowledge, found its classical formulations in Patanjali's Yoga Sutra (ca. 200 BC). Sutras are sayings that are in the nature of axiomatic statements, which to a certain extent form the quintessence of the teaching. Each of the six Brahminical darshanas has its own fundamental sutras formulated in the form of axioms. As for the Yoga Sutras, it consists of four books:

1. 
   Concentration
2. 
   Concentration practice
3. 
   Psychic powers
4. 
   Liberation

The first book explains the so-called yoga of submission (see Chapter 5), and the second and third books explain the classic eightfold path. Finally, the fourth book sets out the philosophical and esoteric aspects of yoga. Without commentary to the uninitiated, the meaning of these sayings is unclear, since in ancient India all types of philosophy were considered “secret teachings”, for a more complete understanding of which a lot of additional information transmitted exclusively orally is required (Mylius 1983). Something has also been formulated that can only be understood through one’s own experience. Finally, a prior acquaintance with Samkhya cosmology is necessary for correct understanding. The first and most important commentary on the Yoga Sutra is the Yoga Bhasya, written by Vyasa.

Like all Brahmanical systems, the school of yoga in subsequent times was also provided with very detailed commentaries and additions. Further, already in the early Middle Ages, some significant changes in methodology were discovered, and a great many subtypes and variants of yoga emerged. Numerous yoga schools vary in features of the exercise technique, on approaches to the problem of spiritual and physical self-improvement and, accordingly, on objects of concentration.

Table 1. Some of the famous forms of yoga

Yoga forms	The original object of spiritual self-improvement, respectively, the subject of concentration exercises (Evans-Wentz 1937)
Hatha yoga	Body functions, breathing
Mantra yoga	The sound of syllables or words
Yantra yoga	Geometric figures
Karma yoga	Actions and selfless activities
Kriya yoga	Physical and spiritual cleansing
Tantra yoga	Psychic experiments
Jnana yoga	Knowledge, cognition
Laya yoga	Strength of will
Bhakti yoga	Divine love, dedication
Kundalini yoga	Esoteric ideas

In Europe, hatha yoga has gained popularity, which literally means “yoga of the Sun and Moon” (more precisely, “Combination of solar and lunar breathing” - Evans-Wentz 1937) and is often translated as “yoga of body control,” although, of course, this also includes spiritual practices. The most important classical texts on hatha yoga are the Hathayogapradipika, Shivasamhita and Gherandasamhita, which appeared in the 11th-17th centuries AD. (Kucharski 1977). Gorakshanath and Matsyendranath are considered the founders of hatha yoga.

Yoga was transferred to other countries, especially in East Asia, where, in particular, their own schools of yoga were formed. (Evans-Wentz 1937), moreover, new forms of culture arose, such as Zen in Japan (see 5.1). For centuries in Asia, and especially in India, yoga has remained a living practice and can still be found today in its traditional forms (Brunton 1937, Vivekananda 1937, Ananda 1980).

In the current century, this modern and relevant yoga for us has become widespread in Europe and America, which has led to the emergence of a number of its Europeanized forms under mottos such as: “Yoga and Christianity”, “Yoga and Sports”, “Yoga and Medicine”. The abundance of forms, the intervention of European cults and philosophical ideas gave rise to that variety of exotic sects, in which it is difficult to recognize “yoga in itself.”

1.2. Construction of classical yoga

When analyzing all the variety of subtypes of yoga that we encounter today throughout the world, it becomes clear, as well as when considering other traditional Indian schools, that the core and methodological basis of yoga will always be the well-known eight-step path. The first five steps (anga) are called Kriya Yoga (practical yoga), and the sixth to eighth steps are called Raja Yoga (royal yoga). The specific expansion of any one of the first five steps, or, equally, only parts of them, gave rise to many subtypes of yoga.

1. 
   Intensive improvement, in features of the third and fourth stages, led to hatha yoga, which, due to the numerous and difficult variety of poses, is also called “body yoga” or “strong yoga.” The following basic components are common to all types of yoga:
2. 
   Available code of conduct(set out in the first and second stages), which formally determines a person’s attitude to society and to himself.
3. 
   Yogic praxis is always associated with conscious execution physical and mental exercises that are done regularly.
4. 
   The execution of all elements of the exercise must be accompanied by conscious mental focus.
5. 
   Setting the consciousness to some passivity(for example, during self-observation of breathing using the formula “I should breathe,” etc.) is a psychological technique that is different from “active concentration” (for example, when doing mental calculations), and creates a psychological basis for mental concentration.

The classical eightfold path is expounded in principle in the second and third books of Patanjali's Yoga Sutras. Since we are giving the most concise presentation, only the sutras dedicated to this topic will be quoted here:

Eight limb yoga

II/29 Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi - the eight steps of yoga.

1st stage

II/30 Non-killing, truthfulness, non-stealing, abstinence and non-greed are called Yama(The literal translation of “Yama” means: discipline, commandment). II/31 These commandments, not limited by time, place, circumstances and caste laws, are a great vow.

2nd stage

II/32 Internal and external purification, contentment, mortification, study and service to God are Niyama.(Niyama literally means: self-discipline; instead of mortification, the concept of “asceticism” is often used).

3rd stage

II/46 A stationary and comfortable posture is an asana.(Initially, only sitting poses could be called asana, since at the time of Patanjali many other poses were still unknown).

4th stage

II/49 This is followed by mastering the movements of inhalation and exhalation (Pranayama). II/53 The mind becomes capable of Dharana. (Pranayama literally means: “restraint of prana” or “control of energy”. By prana is meant vital energy - see Chapter 4. - which comes through breathing and is regulated by it. Based on this, a free translation of pranayama is given by the term “regulation of breathing”) .

5th stage

II/54 Detachment of the senses (Pratyahara) is achieved through disconnecting them from their own objects and simultaneously accepting the nature of mind (chitta). II/55 The result is complete mastery of the senses.(Psychologically accurate translation of the term “pratyahara”: “Lack of connection between the senses and the objects of their sphere of perception”).

6th stage

III/1 Dharana is keeping one's thinking on a specific subject.(Dharana is often simply called “concentration” or “fixation of thought”).

7th stage

III/2 If this (Dharana) forms a continuous flow of knowledge, then it is Dhyana.(Dhyana means precisely: reflection, imagination, analysis and is often translated by the term “meditation”. For the meaning of this translation, see Chapter 5.)

8th stage

III/3 If this (Dhyana), leaving behind any forms, reflects only the meaning, then this is Samadhi.(The correct translation of Samadhi is so controversial that even contradictory definitions are used for this, see Chapter 5).

6,7,8 stages

III/4 These three, when applied to one single object, are samyama. III/5 Upon achieving this, the light of knowledge is ignited. III/12 The focus of citta on any subject achieved then when past and present impressions are the same.

The remaining sutras not quoted here explain and complement what has already been said and are of a more philosophical and didactic nature.

Even today, classical eight-step yoga is practiced in India in this full form, but various variations are also taught. Moreover, both the number and prevalence of the above-mentioned varieties of yoga have increased significantly. Further, it became common to select individual elements or groups of exercises from the system and use them as therapeutic agents in medical practice. Many government-funded clinics and yoga institutes offer yoga therapy techniques for various groups of diseases, which are partly based on clinical experience (see Chapter 6). In addition, for preventive and hygienic purposes, yoga is included in the training programs of schools and sports institutions.

Modern European literature on yoga, consisting mainly of practical recommendations and attempts at interpretation, also contains more or less developed elements of the classical yoga system. Unfortunately, under the influence of sectarian movements and commercial interests, the original content of yoga that is still preserved, albeit incomplete, is often displaced into the dubious area of ​​superficial speculation. In medical practice, yoga as a system is not used, although there are many applications, primarily in the field of psychotherapy and physiotherapy.

Fig.1. Ancient Indian diagram of the subtle body with seven chakras and three main nadis: Ida (blue), Pingala (red) and Sushumna (straight). The symbolic content of the chakras is conveyed by the number of lotus petals.

1.3. Traditional view of the human body

In order to understand the traditional explanation of certain yogic actions, it is necessary to have an idea of ​​the ancient Indian “mystical physiology”, according to which the human body is organized according to the following structural and functional principles (see Fig. 1):

The human body is permeated by a system of nadis, the number of which is about 70,000. Nadis are channels through which vital energy (prana) flows, supplying all tissues. There are three main channels, which are located along the midline of the body from top to bottom: Ida, Pingala and Sushumna. Ida is located on the left, Pingala on the right, Sushumna in the center. Ida and Pingala are often depicted as channels twisted with a right screw relative to each other (Fig. 1). Through these two channels prana flows downwards (Ida) and upwards (Pingala) in the form of “life current”. The middle channel does not function normally. But the serpentine force of Kundalini, which rests on the lower pole of the body, can rise up along it. Kundalini is a hidden, normally dormant energy that appears as a coiled snake.

Yoga leads, among other things, to awakening this serpentine force, which can then rise up the middle Sushumna channel through seven steps, or chakras (see below). These seven chakras (lit.: "Wheels" or "Whirlwinds") are, in these ideas, energy centers related to spiritual processes, so that they could be called centers of psychic activity (Kucharski 1982). They are activated by directing attention to them. Concentrative meditations in tantra and kundalini yoga are designed for this activation. The rise of kundalini should be accompanied by intense sensations in the area of ​​the chakra that is respectively involved. This is how spiritual perfection is gradually achieved. And when kundalini is in the last chakra, perfect enlightenment is achieved.

According to this ancient Indian teaching, every person has such chakras and can activate them. In a state of activity, they begin to rotate (hence the “Wheel”). The doctrine of chakras is also interconnected with cosmology; each chakra corresponds to certain colors, shapes and sounds, the meaning of which, in turn, is associated with the Sanskrit alphabet, etc. (For a complete and accurate description, see Avalon 1958).

This ancient Indian diagram of the human body does not have any anatomical correspondence; both nadis and chakras are not found anywhere in the body as morphological structures. Reducing them, as can be found in many articles on yoga, to nerve plexuses, glands, “vegetative centers”, etc. without any basis. If we seriously take this diagram of the “subtle body” as a result of empirical self-knowledge, then its interpretation is possible only from a physiological point of view (see Chapter 4).

1.4. Yoga and physiology

If we ignore all those cultural and historical forms and interpretations in which yoga was modified or included, then from a natural science perspective, what ultimately remains is some empirical knowledge that exists independently of any interpretation, in which yoga appears as a method of self-discipline. In a physiological sense, we are talking about a certain system of teaching methods of conscious control and regulation of motor, sensory, vegetative and mental activity. In this case, there is a conscious impact on somatic and mental functions, coinciding with conscious “self-recognition”, “experience” of the function.