The picture below shows: Hoplomachus, 3rd c. AD.

Gladiator (from Latin gladius - "sword", "gladius") - the name of the fighters in ancient Rome, who fought among themselves or with animals for the amusement of the public in special arenas.

The first gladiators, strictly speaking, were not such, but were only ordinary slaves and convicted criminals. Later, schools were established for the training of gladiators, and in the hope of fame and fortune, their ranks were filled with people from all classes. Huge amphitheaters were built especially for gladiator fights.

Gladiators used various types of weapons. They often fought one on one. If one of the opponents was wounded, then according to the rules, his fate was in the hands of the audience. If they wanted to keep him alive, they waved handkerchiefs in the air or held their thumbs up. If their thumbs looked down, the victim was to die.

There were cases when citizens, in pursuit of fame and money, gave up their own freedom and became gladiators. Among them there were even female gladiators, when in 63 AD. er. Emperor Nero issued a decree allowing free women to participate in gladiatorial tournaments. After him, Pozzuoli allows Ethiopian women to fight. And the emperor Domitiano in 89 brings dwarf gladiators to the arena.

In order to become a gladiator, it was necessary to take an oath and declare oneself "legally dead". From that moment on, the fighters entered another world, where cruel laws of honor reigned. The first of these was silence. Gladiators communicated in the arena with gestures. The second law is the complete observance of the rules of honor. So, for example, a gladiator who fell to the ground and was conscious of his complete defeat was obliged to remove his protective helmet and put his throat under the opponent's sword or plunge his knife into his own throat.

Over time, such fights began to bother the Romans and they began to invent new spectacles. Gladiators had to fight lions, tigers and other wild animals.

Much effort was made to put an end to these terrible performances, but this was not done until 500 AD. Emperor Theo-Doric.

Types of gladiators

1. Andabat. They were dressed in chain mail, like the eastern cavalry (cataphracts), and helmets with visors without slits for the eyes. Andabats fought each other in much the same way as knights in medieval times. jousting tournaments but without being able to see each other.
2. Bestiary. Armed with a dart or dagger, these fighters were originally not gladiators, but criminals (noxia), sentenced to fight with predatory animals, with a high probability of death of the sentenced. Later, bestiaries became well-trained gladiators, specializing in combat with various exotic predators using darts. The fights were organized in such a way that the beasts had little chance of defeating the bestiary.
3. Bustuary. These gladiators fought in honor of the deceased at ritual games during the funeral rite.
4. Dimacher( from the Greek di - "two" and machaer - "sword") . Two swords were used, one in each hand. They fought without a helmet and shield, with two daggers. They were dressed in a short soft tunic, their arms and legs were bandaged with tight bandages, sometimes they wore leggings.
5. Equity( pl. equites, from lat. equus - "horse") . In the early descriptions, these lightly armed gladiators were dressed in scaly armor, wore a medium-sized round cavalry shield (parma equestris), a helmet with a brim, without a crest, but with two decorative tassels. In Imperial times, they wore a forearm armor (manica) on their right arm, a sleeveless tunic (which distinguished them from other bare-chested gladiators), and a belt. Equites started the fight on horseback, but after they threw their spear (hasta), they dismounted and continued to fight with a short sword (gladius). Equits usually only fought other Equits.
6. Gaul. They were equipped with a spear, a helmet and a small Gallic shield.
7. Essedarius ("chariot fighter", from the Latin name for the Celtic chariot - "esseda"). Perhaps they were first brought to Rome by Julius Caesar from Britain. Essedaria are mentioned in many descriptions from the 1st century AD. e. Since there are no images of the Essedarii, nothing is known about their weapons and fighting style.
8. Hoplomachus (from the Greek "οπλομ?χος" - "armed fighter"). They were dressed in quilted, trouser-like clothing for legs, possibly made of canvas, loincloth, belt, greaves, forearm armor (maniku) on the right arm, and a brimmed helmet with a stylized griffin on the crest, which could be decorated with a tassel of feathers at the top and single feathers on each side. They were armed with a gladius and a very small round shield made from a single sheet of thick bronze (examples from Popmpeii have been preserved). They were put up for fights against the Mirmillons or the Thracians. It is possible that the Goplomakhs descended from the earlier Samnites after it became “politically incorrect” to use the name of a people who had become friendly to the Romans.
9. Lakveary ("fighter with a lasso"). Lakvearii could be a type of retiarii that tried to catch their rivals with a lasso (laqueus) instead of a net.
10. Murmillon( from the Greek mormylos - "sea fish") . They wore a helmet with a stylized fish on the crest (from the Latin "mormylos" - "sea fish"), as well as armor for the forearm (maniku), a loincloth and belt, leggings on right leg, thick windings covering the top of the foot, and very short armor with a recess for stuffing at the top of the foot. Murmillons were armed with a gladius (40-50 cm long) and a large rectangular shield, like legionnaires. They were put up for battle against the Thracians, Retiarii, sometimes also against the hoplomachi.
11. PEGNARY. They used a whip, a club and a shield, which was attached to the left hand with straps.
12. Provocateur ("applicant"). Their outfit could be different, depending on the nature of the games. They were depicted wearing a loincloth, a belt, a long greave on the left leg, a maniku on the right arm, and a helmet with a visor, without brim and crest, but with feathers on each side. They were the only gladiators protected by a cuirass (cardiophylax), which was at first rectangular, then often rounded. The provocateurs were armed with a gladius and a large rectangular shield. Exhibited for battles with the Samnites or other provocateurs.
13. Retiarius ("fighter with a net"). Appeared at the dawn of the Empire. They were armed with a trident, a dagger and a net. Except for a loincloth supported by a wide belt (balteus) and a large armor on the left shoulder joint, the retiarius did not have any clothes, including a helmet. Sometimes a metal shield (galerus) was used to protect the neck and lower face. There were retiarii who played female roles in the arena (“retiarius tunicatus”), which differed from ordinary retiarii in that they were dressed in a tunic. The retiarii usually fought with the secutors, but sometimes with the myrmillons.
14. Rudiarium. Gladiators who deserved to be released (rewarded with a wooden sword called a rudis) but chose to remain gladiators. Not all rudiarii continued to fight in the arena, there was a special hierarchy among them: they could be trainers, assistants, judges, fighters, etc. Rudiarii fighters were very popular among the public, as they had vast experience and one could expect real show.
15. Sagittarius( from lat. sagitta - "arrow") . Mounted archers armed with a flexible bow capable of launching an arrow over a long distance.
16. Samnite. Samnites, ancient type heavily armed fighters, which disappeared in the early imperial period, indicated by its name the origin of gladiator fights. The historical Samnites were an influential group of Italic tribes living in the Campania region south of Rome, against whom the Romans fought wars from 326 to 291 BC. e. The equipment of the Samnites was a large rectangular shield (scutum), a feathered helmet, a short sword, and possibly a greave on the left leg.
17. Secutor( O t lat. sequi - "to pursue") . This type of fighters was specially intended for fights with retiarii. The secutors were a variation of the myrmillons and were equipped with similar armor and weapons, including a large rectangular shield and a gladius. Their helmet, however, covered the entire face, except for two holes for the eyes, in order to protect the face from the sharp trident of their rival. The helmet was practically round and smooth, so that the net of the retiarius could not catch on it.
18. Skissor ("one who cuts"). Nothing is known about this type of gladiator other than the name.
19. Tertiary (also called "Suppositicius" - "replacing"). Some competitions involved three gladiators. First, the first two fought each other, then the winner of this fight fought with the third, who was called the tertiary. Tertiarii also came to replace if the gladiator declared for the fight, for one reason or another, could not enter the arena.
20. Thracian( lat. thraex - a representative of the people of Thrace) . The Thracians were equipped with the same armor as the goplomakhs. They had grand slam, covering the entire head and decorated with a stylized griffin on the forehead or on the front of the crest (the griffin was a symbol of the goddess of retribution Nemesis), a small round or flattened shield (parmula), and two large greaves. Their weapon was a Thracian curved sword (sicca, about 34 cm long). They usually fought the Myrmillons or the Hoplomaches.
21. Velit( pl. velites, from lat. velum - "canvas", because dressed in a linen tunic) . Foot gladiators armed with a dart with a throwing cord tied to it. Named after units of the early Republican army.
22. Venator. They specialized in demonstrative hunting for animals, not fighting them in close combat, like bestiaries. Venators also performed tricks with animals: they put their hand in the mouth of a lion; rode on a camel, keeping a lion on a leash nearby; made an elephant walk on a tightrope). Strictly speaking, the venators were not gladiators, but their performances were part of the gladiator fights.
23. Pregenary. They performed at the beginning of the competition to "warm up" the crowd. They used wooden swords (rudis) and wrapped cloth around the body. Their fights took place to the accompaniment of cymbals, pipes and water organs (hydraulis).

Arena and blood: Roman gladiators between life and death Goroncharovsky Vladimir Anatolyevich

Chapter 4 Types of gladiators and their weapons

Types of gladiators and their weapons

What are the main types of gladiators developed by the time when in 79 AD. e. Pompeian barracks, the excavations of which yielded the best surviving examples of their weapons, were buried under a hail of volcanic stones and ash? What were the features of their equipment, suggesting a certain combat technique? We note right away that, regarding weapons, the opinions of researchers completely coincide in no more than six of its types. The fact is that by the beginning of the first centuries of our era, certain types of gladiators, originally corresponding to peoples hostile to Rome, had already disappeared or had changed somewhat. In the surviving pictorial materials, the type called "retiarius" (from Latin rete "network") is most easily identified. He was armed with a net about 3 m in diameter, tied to the wrist with a rope, a large trident with a thick wooden handle (fuscina) and a dagger (Fig. 10).

Rice. 10. Tomb relief of the retiarius Martial. 3rd century

From the means of protection, the half-naked retiarius had only a multilayer quilted bracer (manika) made of fabric or leather fastened to the left hand and a metal pauldron (galley) fastened to it, partly covering the neck (Fig. 11). The lower abdomen was covered only with a cloth loincloth (subligacula), which was a brightly colored piece of fabric in the shape of an isosceles triangle with a side of about 1.2–1.5 m. Two ends of it were tied in front, the third was passed between the legs and through the knot and freely hung in front. The upper part of the dressing was covered by a belt (balteus) up to 8–12 cm wide, fastened at the back with two hooks at one end, which entered holes at the opposite end. Bronze plates were traditionally attached to the leather base of the belt. In some cases, the legs below the knees were protected by thick quilted windings (fascia) made of many layers of wool or linen, fastened with leather straps.

Rice. 11. Retiarius (according to S. Wisdom):

2 - lead weights;

3 - actions of the retiarius in battle;

4 - long rope network;

5 - trident;

7 - galley mounts;

8 - manica;

9 - medallion;

10 - headband

The total weight of the equipment of the retiarius was only about 7-8 kg, and this lack of heavy weapons made him very unprestigious in the eyes of the Romans, since he was constantly on the move, giving rise to mocking ridicule. Indeed, in the absence of armor, he had more to rely on his speed and agility. He fought, like most other gladiators, barefoot, which is obviously due to the desire for greater stability on the sand of the arena during the duel. The retiarius held the net in a well-protected left hand in order to prevent the enemy from inflicting a wound during the throw. Usually it was a heavily armed secutor - a type of gladiator, which will be discussed in detail later. If successful, the retiarius sought to quickly entangle and knock him down, and then deliver a decisive blow. If the opponent managed to take possession of the net, the retiarius cut the rope at the wrist with a dagger and released himself. This pair - retiarius and secutor - reminded the audience of a duel between a fisherman and a fish. This comparison was intensified when the "fisherman" was placed on a high platform, where two narrow boards with steps were led, and the retiarius had to protect him from the attack of two secutors at once with the help of stones collected in heaps (Fig. 12). So, what did the secutor (lit.: "chaser") look like? His weapons included a helmet, a rectangular shield (scutum), a greave on his left leg, a manica on his right arm, and a sword. The streamlined helmet had an extremely smooth surface, small holes for the eyes, no more than 3 cm in diameter, and a rounded crest in the form of a fish fin. Accordingly, hooking him with a net or hitting him with a trident was an extremely difficult task. The tactics of the secutor were diametrically different from the mode of action of the retiarius. This is practically the same mirmillon, but with an improved attack technique. To eliminate the advantages of the enemy, he sought close combat, but it was impossible to predict its outcome. Suetonius has a story about how, under Caligula, “five retiarii gladiators in tunics fought against five secutors, succumbed without a fight and were already waiting for death, when suddenly one of the vanquished grabbed his trident and killed all the winners” (Suet. Cal. 30. 3). The fact that such a variant of the development of a duel between retiarii and secutors was not at all an exceptional event is proved by a fragment of a relief from the 3rd century BC. from the tombstone of a retiarius on the Appian Way. There are images of five corresponding pairs of gladiators, and the retiarii in all cases are the winners. Judging by the number of secutors killed, in this case the battle is sine missio, that is, "without leave."

Rice. 12. The duel of the retiarius with the secutor on the platform. 2nd–3rd centuries

The forerunners of the secutors in their opposition to the retiarii were the myrmillons (Fig. 13), according to the lexicographer of the period of the late Empire of Phaistos, previously called the Gauls. According to some, the Gauls appeared in the arena after the conquests of Julius Caesar; according to another point of view - much earlier. In any case, both names are already in the 1st c. n. e. have become synonymous. The word "mirmillon" comes either from the name of the sea fish (mormyllos), which was depicted on the helmet, or from murex ("sea snail", "cliff"), in both versions there is a marine theme. The duel of gladiators of these particular types, as the most characteristic and impressive, was described in detail by R. Giovagnoli in the first chapter of his novel Spartacus, although images of retiarii dating back to before the turn of our era have not yet been found. As you know, in the novel the battle ends with the death of the retiarius who lost the fight, but in reality, as already noted, everything could be different. Valery Maxim, who completed his work entitled “Memorable deeds and sayings” around 30, preserved a story about a duel between a retiarius and a myrmillo at the gladiatorial games in Syracuse, when it was the retiarius who knocked down his opponent and was about to finish him off with a dagger (Val. Max. I.7.8). Even having lost the net, with a trident he could inflict terrible blows on the head or legs of the enemy, catch and knock out the blade of his sword from his hands, or press hard on the edge of the shield.

Rice. 13. Terracotta figurine of myrmillon

Mirmillon fought naked to the waist, which made it possible to demonstrate to the public a powerful torso and muscle play. His defensive weapons were represented by a helmet, a manica on his right arm, a short greave on his left leg, and a scutum shield. The characteristic features of the Myrmillon helmets were a visor, wide brim and a huge pommel decorated with a plume of feathers or horsehair in the shape of a fish fin. One of them, kept in the collection of the Berlin Museum, was even silvered, like fish scales, and in the sun it must have been a truly dazzling sight. The greave with thick quilted windings worn under it protected the leg of the myrmillon only below the knee. Above, the scutum served as protection, covering the fighter to the very chin. The only offensive weapon was an ordinary gladius - which was sometimes tied with a belt to the arm so as not to be dropped when colliding with the enemy. In total, the weight of the armament of the mirmillon was 16–18 kg, of which up to 7.5 kg fell on the shield. It is possible that this type of gladiator, more similar to the Roman legionnaire in terms of the set of weapons, was used in the arena to recreate the picture of the battles between the Romans and their numerous enemies.

An arbelas, a gladiator with equipment in the form of a helmet, scaly armor or chain mail to the knees, quilted or recruited from metal strips of manica on his right arm and short leggings (Fig. 14), could also resist the retiarius in the arena. The helmet usually had a longitudinal crest. Instead of a shield in the left hand of an arbelas, we see on the surviving reliefs a strange tool in the form of a tubular bracer, ending in a semicircular blade. Apparently, it was intended to cut the network of the retiarius and parry the blows of his trident, and on occasion could inflict terrible lacerations on the enemy. In the right hand, there was a gladius or dagger. The total weight of the weapons was to reach 22–26 kg. Without a shield, with two swords or curved daggers, dimachers also performed. A relief from Phrygia that has come down to us depicts a fighter in a helmet with a visor and brim, with greaves and quilted windings on his legs. His defensive armament, which was not worked out in detail, most likely consisted of chain mail, otherwise close combat for him with two short daggers would be impossible.

Rice. 14. Relief depicting a battle between a retiarius and an arbelas. 2nd–3rd centuries

The name of another type of gladiator - goplomakh - is of Greek origin and means "fighting with weapons." His equipment included a spear in combination with a short sword or dagger (Fig. 15). The minimum of clothing was limited, as with the myrmillon, to a loincloth and a wide belt. The head was protected by a helmet with a visor, wide brim and a pommel decorated with a plume. Two curved feathers were stuck into the sides of the helmet. A small round hoplomakh shield with a diameter of about 45 cm had a strongly curved, cupped shape. It was made of a thick sheet of bronze and was very heavy, which made it possible to use it not only for defense, but also for attack. In the hand holding the shield, the hoplomach clutched a short dagger, a manica was put on the right hand. The small size of the shield was compensated by high, reaching to the middle of the thigh, leggings worn over quilted windings, the upper part of which was hidden under a loincloth. The entire set of weapons is unlikely to weigh more than 17-18 kg. Depending on the tastes of the public, in various regions of the empire, the hoplomah usually performed in tandem with a mirmillo or a Thracian.

Rice. 15. Goplomakh and provocateur (according to S. Wisdom):

A - goplomakh: 1 - round parmula; 2 - spear; 6 - leggings; 7, 8 - types of leggings; 9 - method of fastening leggings; B - provocateur: 3 - helmet with feathers; 4 - a helmet of the usual type; 5 - helmet from Haukidon (England)

The last of the types of gladiators mentioned appeared in Rome quite a long time ago. During the war of 87–85. BC e., which the commander Sulla led in the East against the Pontic king Mithridates VI Eupator, many Thracians who served in his army turned out to be in Roman captivity. And so the organizers of the next games came up with the idea to release Thracian gladiators into the arena (Fig. 16). True, this name turned out to be rather conditional, since the armament of the Thracians cannot be called “ethnic”. They can easily be confused with hoplomakhs due to the manica on the right arm, quilted wraps on the legs, high greaves and a helmet with a brim and a visor in which many holes were punched. The helmet, as a rule, had a characteristic, easily recognizable curved crest (Fig. 17), often in the form of a griffin's head. This mythological image symbolized Nemesis, the goddess of retribution, whose small temples were located in many places of the ancient world, where gladiatorial fights were held. A plume of feathers (krista) or two feathers on the sides could serve as a decoration for the helmet. The Thracian was significantly distinguished by a small shield of almost square shape and a small dagger (sika) with a blade that curved at a blunt, and sometimes at a right angle (Fig. 16, 5). The severity of the armament of the Mirmillon, the Goplomakh and the Thracian was almost the same, but the Thracian had to show greater mobility, conduct a maneuverable battle. Spectators expected from gladiators of this type deft dashes, precisely calculated agile movements, which made it easy to evade the opponent's attacks or quickly go on the attack. Only the speed of action, given the small size of the shield, could save his life.

Rice. 16. Thracian and secutor (by S. Wisdom):

A- Thracian, IN- secutor; 1 - short shield; 2 - manica from metal plates; 2a- manica design; 2b- leather belt buckle for fastening the manica; 3 - a helmet with a crest; Behind- grille holes for the eyes in the helmet; 4 - gladius; 5 - sika; 6 - scutum; 7 - helmet design; 8 - leggings

Rice. 17. Marble relief depicting a Thracian gladiator, found in the vicinity of Smyrna in 1867.

Another early and very popular type of gladiator is a provocateur who performed half-naked (a bandage and a metal balteus belt) with a manica on his right arm and a high greave on his left leg. A helmet with cheek pads, as a rule, of an army model, a large rectangular shield and a sword with a straight blade resembled the armament of a Roman legionnaire. A striking feature was the presence on the chest of a large metal plate (cardiophylax) in the form of a rectangle or crescent, which was attached to the back with crossed straps. From the 2nd century the helmet of the provocateur became more closed, with a wide rear field reliably covering the neck. The cheek pads were replaced by a visor with holes for the eyes, closed by bars. The shield differed from the scutum by the presence of a vertical metal rib. The weight of weapons in a lightweight version was 14–15 kg. Usually provocateurs fought in pairs, and only in some cases other types of gladiators acted as their opponents.

Lightly armed gladiator riders (equites) also converged in the arena. They started the fight using leaf-shaped spears, and when they broke, then, once on the ground, they continued it with short swords. Usually this moment was depicted in the works of ancient fine art. The equite's head was protected by a rounded helmet with a visor and wide brim, sometimes with two feathers on the sides. Other protective elements were a round cavalry shield (parma equestris) made of thick embossed leather with a diameter of about 60 cm and a manica on the right hand. At the beginning of our era, judging by the surviving images, they performed in scaly shells (lorica squamata), later - in simple belted sleeveless tunics with wide vertical colored stripes. In some cases, the legs of the riders were protected by quilted fascia overlays.

Much is still unclear in relation to the essedarii (charioteers) mentioned by a number of ancient authors and in various inscriptions. The term itself comes from the name of a light two-wheeled Celtic chariot and has been in use since at least the middle of the 1st century BC. Accordingly, it can be assumed that chariot fights came into use after 43 AD. when Britain was conquered during the reign of Claudius. The desire to entertain the public could well have prompted the emperor to include in the program of gladiatorial games an unusual chariot fight for the Romans. Here is how Julius Caesar, who was the first to attempt to capture the island, described them: “A kind of battle from chariots goes like this. First, they are driven around in all directions and fired, and for the most part they upset the enemy ranks with the already terrible sight of horses and the sound of wheels; then, having made their way into the gaps between the squadrons, the British jump off the chariots and fight on foot ... And thanks to daily experience and exercise, the British achieve the ability to stop the horses at full gallop even on steep cliffs, quickly delay and turn them, jump on the drawbar, stand on the yoke and with quickly jump into the chariot" (Caes. De bello gall. IV. 33).

The performance of the essedarii most likely began with a demonstration of the art of driving a chariot, then, as in the case of the equites, the horse battle turned into a duel of foot fighters. Not so long ago, M. Junkelman suggested that images of those gladiators, whose equipment cannot be correlated with any other type, be attributed to essedaria. Following this principle, attempts were made to highlight the characteristic features of their weapons: a brimless helmet with a visor (sometimes with two feathers), a curved oval shield, a manica on the right arm, and short windings on the legs. Additionally, the following observation helps to attribute gladiators with a curved oval shield and a corresponding set of other weapons as essedarii: on those reliefs where the details of the surface of this shield are worked out, an elongated umbon is clearly visible - a convex metal plate associated with a longitudinal stiffener. Such a shield was called "thureos" and became known in the ancient world thanks to the Celts, which included the Gauls, the Britons, and the Asia Minor Galatians. In Greco-Roman art, the oval Celtic shield was often a kind of ethnic emblem, in this case quite logical for equipment of the gladiator type, associated with its origin in Britain.

There is very little information about such gladiators as andabat (fought blindly, in a deaf helmet without slits for the eyes), orders (possibly with the armament of the eponymous light infantryman of the period of the Republic), crupellarium (had solid iron armor), lakverariy (a kind of retiarius, but instead of lasso nets and a short spear), sagittarium (with a powerful compound bow, in a conical helmet and scaly armor), samnite (apparently, the weapon set included a helmet with a crest, a three-disc shell, a large shield, a greave on the left leg, a spear and a sword) .

We will dwell separately on such a figure from among those who performed in the arena with weapons, like a venator, who fought exclusively with wild animals. The equipment of a fighter of this type until the middle of the 1st century BC. n. e. it was very reminiscent of the vestments of heavily armed gladiators: from clothes - loincloths or tunics, quilted windings on the legs; from defensive weapons - leggings, manica, a shield (round, oval or rectangular), from offensive weapons - a sword and a spear. To characterize the weapons of the Venators at this stage, of greatest interest is a part of the relief discovered in Rome, in the Orsini Palace, during the construction of which marble slabs from the theater of Marcellus were used. The plot of the relief echoes the event that marked the grand opening of the theater by Emperor Augustus in 13 BC. e. - a grand venazio, in which 600 wild animals took part. We see here the fight of several venators with a lion, a leopard and a bear (Fig. 18). One of them, armed with a sword, in an open helmet and scaly shell, knocked down by a lion, lies on the ground. In the mouth of this beast is the hand of another unfortunate "hunter". Both venators on the right side of the relief are shown in tunics with open right shoulders, helmets with a crest bent forward, they are armed with square shields and short swords. Let us especially note one more interesting detail - these are wide belts shown on all animals, connected on the back and equipped with a ring. The fact is that in the cages under the arena they were firmly tied to these rings in a special way so that the animals would not injure themselves with too sudden movements. In this case, a bear is tied to the ring with a thick rope, apparently to equalize the chances of man and beast. From the second half of the 1st c. n. e. the heavy equipment of the venators, which did not provide the drama expected by the public when a person met an animal, changed radically. Their main attire was a tunic, short fascias appeared on their legs, and only a short hunting spear (venabul) was used as the only weapon. Later, in the II century. n. e., for fighters of this type, knee-length pants come into fashion in combination with a wide belt and a small ornamented breastplate.

Rice. 18. Marble relief of the end of the 1st century. BC e. with the image of venators

To summarize, we can draw the following conclusion: the armor of the gladiators of each type had vulnerabilities, but everything was thought out in such a way as to exclude a quick victory and balance the chances of the warring parties. Therefore, during the competition there was no way to predict which of the gladiators could win by the equipment, which fueled the audience's special interest in what was happening in the arena. Indeed, hitting the enemy in the chest with protected limbs is quite difficult, which implies effective active combat, great skill and dexterity, otherwise the sophisticated Roman public would simply get bored. Of course, there was no fencing in the modern sense of the word in those days. Mostly stabbing blows were used, for which a shield was used to parry. Often he himself was used as a means of attack, in order to unbalance the enemy with an unexpected blow from his rib or umbon - a convex protrusion in the central part (cf.: Tas. Agric. 36). Only two types of gladiators, due to the lack of a shield, had to use the parry of the blade with the blade - dimacher and arbelas.

The greatest advantages in battle for all types of gladiators were given by a left-sided stance with a body turned at an angle of 45 ° to the enemy. It allowed both inflicting and parrying powerful blows, especially if the main means of defense was a large shield. When the legs were slightly bent at the knees, it almost completely covered the body from the lower edge of the visor to the upper edge of the leggings. In this stance, the right hand with the sword was at the level of the thigh. In order not to open up, they tried to strike at close range over the shield or attacked, retracting the shield and at the same time taking a step forward. The use of spears by goplomakhs suggested a preference for long-range combat, since with close contact it became useless. Close combat posed the most serious danger to the retiarius. In this situation, winning even a few moments could provide him with an opportunity to deliver a decisive blow with a trident. The Thracian, on the contrary, could strike beyond the line of the shield with his curved dagger only in close combat.

The main weapon of the gladiators, as their name implies, was the gladius - a sword used in the Roman army from the end of the 3rd century BC. BC e. The famous “Spanish” gladius had a blade 64–69 cm long and 4.0–5.5 cm wide. Its double-sided blade with a longitudinal stiffener and a clearly defined point made it possible not only to chop, but also to stab, which was important in the tightness of the battle. During the reign of Emperor Augustus, it was quickly supplanted by the Mainz-type gladius, which was used until the middle of the 1st century. n. e. The length of the blade in this case was about 50 cm with a width of up to 8.7 cm. The total length of the sword weighing up to 1.2–1.6 kg in some cases reached 75 cm. Later, lightweight gladius of the so-called Pompeian type, weighing about 1 kg, became widespread (Fig. 19). Accordingly, their blade had smaller dimensions: about 45 cm long and 5–6 cm wide, with a point, the edges of which were located at an angle of 45 °. During the late Roman Empire, from the end of the 2nd to the beginning of the 3rd century, the gladius replaces long sword- a spatha with a blade up to 85 cm long. From the surviving inscriptions, it is known that there were myrmillons-spatarii, provocateurs-spatarii, etc., during this period.

Along with swords, retiarii and a number of gladiators with light weapons widely used daggers, which, judging by the finds in Pompeii, had bone handles and wide straight diamond-shaped blades about 20-30 cm long. Such daggers practically differ little from the "pugio" adopted into service in the Roman army since the end of the 2nd century BC. BC e.

Daggers with a thin curved blade (sika) can only be judged by two samples with a uniform curve along the entire length. One of them, with a small round guard, has a length of about 60 cm, with 45 cm falling on the blade itself.

Rice. 19. Smoothing from Pompeii. 1st century n. e.

The other comes from the Roman camp at Oberaden and is a wooden model with a sharply defined hilt and a 30.5 cm long blade. In both cases, double-edged blades with a stiffener are intended primarily for inflicting injections. After the middle of the 1st c. n. e. the blade of such daggers began to be made wider and had a sharp fracture at an angle of 45 °, which allowed their owners to inflict stabbing or chopping blows on the enemy.

An equally common weapon of gladiators was a spear about 2.0–2.3 m long, which was used by hoplomakhs, equites and venators. Bronze spearheads found in the school of gladiators in Pompeii demonstrate the presence of a sleeve and a leaf-shaped or lanceolate feather with a pronounced stiffening rib. Regarding the only three-lobed tip of a triangular shape, it is quite probable that it is part of the retiarius trident, the length of which, judging by the surviving images, was at least 1.6–1.8 m. As you know, the retiarius also used the network considered in antiquity as a throwing projectile, so it was sometimes called a jaculator (thrower). Its weight, as the reconstruction shows, ranged from 1.5 to 3.0 kg. It was round with wide cells of about 10–20 cm and lead weights at the ends.

If the offensive weapon of the gladiators differed little from the usual army, then speaking of defensive weapons, a number of significant features should be noted for it. To understand them, you will have to turn to the analysis of finds from Pompeii. This amazing collection includes fifteen helmets, five pairs of long and six short single greaves, three galley pauldrons and a small round shield. For the most part, they are generously decorated with various relief images, which led to the emergence of the following common point of view: these are ceremonial weapons, which were worn only to participate in the pomp - the solemn procession of the opening of the games. In this case, the following arguments were given: 1) these weapons are too expensive to be in danger of being damaged; 2) there are no traces of the impact of weapons on them; 3) they are too heavy to be used in combat; 4) The metal surface with embossed decorations is not strong enough to withstand strong blows. However, these arguments can be easily challenged. We must not forget that the gladiators were participants in magnificent performances and had to impress the public, including the luxury of their weapons. In addition, the predominant use of stabbing rather than chopping strikes is unlikely to involve a significant amount of damage. In helmets, the visor grille most often had to suffer, but it was not difficult to repair or replace it. Therefore, only two Pompeian helmets have combat marks in the form of notches or a bronze patch. As for the weight of the helmets, it really varies from 2.72 kg to 6.80 kg, which, even with an average value, is twice as heavy as the helmet of a Roman legionary of the 1st century. But they were used in completely different conditions! Gladiators put on a helmet immediately before the battle, and did not drag it on themselves during a long transition. A short duel in the arena cannot even be compared with a battle that could drag on for several hours. With the increased weight of the helmets, there is also no need to talk about the weakness of the metal due to the embossing of the relief decor. For them, sheet bronze was used, which is almost one and a half times thicker than that used in the manufacture of helmets in the Roman army. Thus, sets of so-called ceremonial weapons were in fact an attribute of a normal performance in the arena, apparently changing owners from time to time.

Gladiator helmets of the 1st century. BC BC, as a rule, they were a combination of Boeotian and Attic helmets, from which wide brim bent down, as well as a characteristic forehead plate and wide cheek pads, were borrowed. Next stage in the development of helmets is associated with the appearance of about 20 BC. e. took. It hid the individual features of a person and allowed the audience to better focus on the art of combat. This "depersonalization" provided a kind of psychological help to the gladiators themselves when they had to fight with their friends in the barracks life. The visor itself consisted of two parts, suspended on hinges, and opened in different directions like gate leaves. Often there were special round holes for the eyes with a diameter of about 8 cm. Usually they were covered with removable plates with holes. In front, at the junction of the parts of the visor, there were latches for fixing them on a metal strip forming a vertical rib. By the end of the 1st century the visor almost entirely began to consist of a lattice with protrusions that were included in the corresponding slots in the helmet. The design of the helmets of the types described above is typical only for the equipment of the Myrmillons, Hoplomaches, Thracians and Equites. In secutors and arbelas, the diameter of the eye openings is only 3 cm, which was a precautionary measure against hitting the retiarius with a trident. However, in one of the varieties of the secutor helmet, the entire visor was covered with small round holes to facilitate breathing and expand the field of view.

If we use the typology of helmets developed by M. Junkelman, then the earliest examples of the 1st c. have horizontal fields either along the entire perimeter (Chieti G), or only on the sides and back, forming a curved visor in front (Pompeii G). Around the second quarter of the 2nd c. n. e. a type of helmet appeared (Berlin G), which remained popular for almost three centuries. It has low fields on the sides and back, combined with a sharply raised frame of the visor grille (Fig. 20).

A characteristic element of the form of gladiator helmets was the pommel. For secutors and arbelas, it was a curved semicircular comb; in the helmet of a myrmillon, the pommel rose vertically from behind, then bent almost at a right angle forward, having a groove for attaching a horsehair plume. The helmet of the Thracian, like the goplomakh, on a pommel evenly curved forward, could have a plume of feathers. The helmets of the Essedarii can only be speculated upon. M. Junkelman believes that at first they had a great resemblance to the army type Mannheim and Haguenau, but then they began to look like secutor helmets. The only differences were the absence of a comb and two feathers on the sides of the crown. Usually, all helmets had a bronze surface polished to a shine, which could be decorated with relief images using the deep chasing technique or silver plated. In this regard, the well-preserved Thracian helmet (Chieti type G) from the gladiator barracks in Pompeii attracts attention. Its crest is adorned with the head of a griffin, the forehead part with an image of a palm tree as a symbol of victory, and its visor with round shields and spears minted in low relief. The magnificently decorated helmets of the myrmillons (Pompeii type G) are characterized primarily by plots associated with mythological characters.

The protection of the hand of the gladiators - the left of the retiarius, and the right of all the rest - was manica, usually made from several layers of quilted fabric or leather belts. It was attached to the hand with numerous leather straps, protecting the hand and thumb only from the outside. Reconstruction of manica using horse hair as a filler showed that this product weighs no more than 1 kg, holds a chopping blow well and the hand is quite mobile in it. From the beginning of the II century. n. e. and up to the 4th c. scaly designs with metal plates were common. For them, a more complex fastening system was used: belts covering the chest, back and left shoulder. A specific protective device exclusively for the retiarius was the galley - an almost square bronze shield with rounded upper edges with a protrusion for the hand and two pairs of loops for tying with inside. Usually its height did not exceed 35 cm, and its weight - 1.2 kg. The purpose of the shield, which protruded upwards by 12–13 cm, was to protect the neck and head from side impacts.

The shields that were part of the armament of the mirmillons and secutors practically did not differ from the well-known scutum of the Roman legionnaires and changed in accordance with changes in its design. Until the beginning of the 1st c. n. e. the scutum had an oval shape, which was replaced by a rectangular, semi-cylindrical, providing better protection for a warrior. The dimensions of the shields varied from 100–130 cm in height to 60–80 cm in width. Taking into account the usual practice of that time, we can say that in the manufacture of this kind of protective weapons, to give it special strength, two or three layers of thin wooden plates with a thickness of about 2 mm each were glued perpendicular to each other. Then, on both sides, they were first covered with linen, then with one or more layers of thick leather. However, sometimes the reverse order of the structure of the outer coating is also observed. In any case, the lining of the inner side was necessary to prevent rubbing of the hand against the wooden backing of the shield. An idea about the design of the early scutum is given by the discovery of a shield from the 1st century BC. BC e. from the Fayum oasis in Egypt. The oval shield, 1.280 m high and 0.635 m wide, had a convex surface. Its base was made of nine thin birch planks, glued together by the sides. Narrow (from 2.5 to 5.0 cm) plates of the same type of wood are tightly pasted onto it on both sides. On the outer side, in the center of the shield, a convex overlay is nailed with iron nails - an elongated wooden umbon. Triangular in cross-section slats depart from it, forming a longitudinal ridge. On all sides, the shield was covered with a thin layer of sheep wool felt. The edges of the inner felt covering were turned outward and sewn to the tree, forming a roll 5–6 cm wide. Judging by P. Connolly's reconstruction, the weight of such a shield could reach 10 kg.

The only surviving example of a late scutum, dating from the 3rd century, was found in Dura Europos (Syria). Its edges are trimmed with rawhide sewn to wood, although more often they were upholstered with a metal strip about 5 cm wide, it could be used to take a chopping blow (cf .: Polyaen. 8. 7. 2) or use it to strike the enemy and knock him off his feet. The thickness of the edge of the shield was about 6 mm, but towards the middle it could probably thicken up to 1 cm. From the inside, its base was reinforced with glued wooden planks forming a rectangle. The handle is formed by a thickening of an additional bar passing along the horizontal axis through the center. WITH outside such a handle was covered with a metal umbon. In battle, a large shield was held by her with a horizontal grip on a vertically lowered arm, threaded through a special loop. outer surface the shield, as in this case, could be decorated with multi-colored images or ornaments. The scutum, reconstructed by P. Connolly on the basis of a find in Dura Europos, weighed about 5.5–7.5 kg. Accordingly, its use in an individual duel required a good physical training.

Provocateurs used a shield of lesser weight and smaller dimensions - about 70-80 cm high. The strongly curved small shield of the Thracians (parmula) was rectangular (about 55x60 cm), as a rule, without the usual round umbon. Obviously, the handle in this case was located vertically. The reconstructed weight of the shield was 3 kg. The Pompeian specimen of the round bronze hoplomachus shield, 37 cm in diameter, weighed 1.6 kg and was richly decorated with silver and copper chasing in the form of two concentric laurel wreaths and the head of the Gorgon Medusa in the center (Fig. 21). The shield was held by the left hand, which could also contain a dagger, while the right hand held a spear. Several large sizes (diameter about 60 cm) was the shield of equites - parma equestris, made of thick pressed leather. By analogy with the Turkish shields of the new time, it should have easily repelled attacks directed from different parties. Round, oval or rectangular shields up to the middle of the 1st century BC. n. e. supplied the venators. There was no standardization in this regard.

Rice. 21. Bronze shield from Pompeii

For several types of gladiators, leggings (ocrea) were included in the mandatory set of protective weapons, which only centurions wore in the Roman army. Leggings made of bronze were attached to the shins with leather straps passed through several pairs of rings and tied at the back. Apparently, their length depended mainly on the size of the shield, and the bent upper edge of the greaves of myrmillons and secutors protected the leg from blows from its lower edge. On the other hand, the lack of leggings among the arbelas and dimachers who did not have a shield, as well as among the Essedarii and equites who fought as horsemen, is surprising. At the same time, myrmillons, secutors and provocateurs had a greave only on the left leg, and if it was short, it was necessarily supplied with a high rounded neckline under upper part feet. In turn, high leggings had a bulge for patella. The role of the lining was played by quilted windings (fascia) weighing, judging by the reconstructions, up to 3.5 kg. The presence of short inscriptions of several letters on about half of the leggings - NCA, NER, NER.AVG - indicates, most likely, that they were made in the workshops at the gladiatorial school of Nero, which put some of the weapons made on sale. The presence of one MSR inscription on ten other objects at once makes one assume that the person behind this monogram is either a master gunsmith or a local lanist. The surface of gladiatorial leggings was often covered with rich relief decor, for example, one of them depicts the head of the god of wine and winemaking Dionysus, his attributes and the heads of his companions - satyrs and maenads.

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For centuries, tales of gladiatorial battles have fascinated people. And no wonder, because these fearless warriors fought for the right to live. For the most colorful presentation, powerful warriors were divided into types, and each of them was used in various battles and was armed in its own way.

Bestiaries never fought gladiators of other classes, they fought exotic animals. Especially for the battles, various dangerous animals were brought. Bestiaries were divided into two types. "Damnatio ad bestias" - given to the beasts. These included citizens of the lower class who were spoken to the execution. And this duel was more like a simple persecution by animals. The second type was called "venatio", which translates as a hunter. The hunters were armed with a club, a spear or darts, they entered the arena with an almost naked body without any armor. Also, hunters were engaged in training aggressive animals and often showed real performances to the audience, putting their hands and head into the mouth of a predator.

distinguished by cold-bloodedness and courage in any hopeless situation. They entered the arena armed only with light spears against opponents with heavy weapons. With the help of an unexpected attack and virtuoso defense, the velites showed the most colorful and striking victories, gaining the fame of cold-blooded fighters capable of the most effective actions during the brutal battles in the arena.

Powerful and brave had the glory of the elite of the world of gladiators. These formidable wars cut a man in half with one blow. They were distinguished by great pressure and endurance, often seriously wounded goplomakh - the winner, did not leave the battlefield for a long time, listening to the enthusiastic cries of the audience. Powerful hoplomakhs could fearlessly fight alone with several rivals. Goplomakhs came out armed with swords - gladiuses or heavy two-toothed axes, for protection they used massive shields. On the head they wore a large helmet, decorated with horns or feathers.

belonged to the equestrian type of gladiators, started a duel on horseback and with long spears 2 - 2.5 meters, but they always ended the battle on foot with the help of swords. In the arena, they wore a wide-brimmed helmet, as well as a medium-sized round shield made of leather. This species was considered lightly armed, since the weight of the uniform was no more than 12 kg. Equits always fought only with equites and were not put up against gladiators of other types.

fought in the arena without armor in a spectacular mask on their faces. Possessing great dexterity and speed, they inflicted many cutting and stab wounds, exhausting opponents with their inaccessibility. Armed with two thin and light swords, dimachers easily fought opponents with heavy weapons. There were cases when some dimachers released by the emperor subsequently became excellent actors.

The main distinctive ability legnarians there was a skill honed to perfection to concentrate all his strength in one key blow. These skilled fighters rarely took part in fights to the death, but performed on the lists for the sake of showing a delightful spectacle. The main weapon was a staff or a whip, but sometimes they were armed with a long whip for a deadly duel with terrible animals. With one strong and precise blow of this scourge, the Legniarius easily broke the spine of a huge beast or his rival.

armed with shields and gladius swords and always acted in pairs, against especially strong opponents. On the head were worn conspicuous helmets, decorated with delightful crests with bright stripes. The crests helped the fighters not to lose sight of each other in order to cover their comrade in time. Often, in the event of the death of his partner, another fighter committed suicide without leaving the arena. Such fidelity was considered a confirmation of strong male friendship.

Retiarii are the oldest type of gladiators. Thanks to the great combat effectiveness, these trained warriors successfully opposed the heavily armed secutors and Thracians. At first, the retiarii went to battle equipped with a dagger, trident and net, later they were allowed to wear an impressive helmet and shields to protect their necks. But it was the net and the trident that remained the invariable feature of these brave warriors. The net thrown by an experienced hand for some time entangled the opponent in heavy weapons, which, trying to get out, was an easy target for a huge trident.

armed with a huge shield and sword, dressed in heavy armor and a round-shaped helmet covering the face with two small slits for the eyes. Usually gladiators of this type were exhibited against retiarii. At the beginning of the battle, the retiarius retreated to a non-dangerous distance, and the secutor pursued him, trying not to get caught in the net and under the blow of the trident. Wearing heavy armor and weapons, these brave warriors quickly got tired.

Thracians thanks to their courage and boundless courage, they became a legend of gladiatorial battles. They went out to fight in a heavy helmet with sharpened horns, a sharp Thracian sword and a strong bronze shield. Such uniforms turned the fighter into a dangerous weapon against mounted and foot enemies. When the sword was lost, the Thracians instantly took off their helmet and used it as a weapon during close combat. Many eminent Thracians received the privilege of wearing a colorful staff during the exit of all gladiators before the start of battles.

Sagittaria were equestrian gladiators who skillfully wielded a bow. Swift sagittarii usually came out at the end of mass battles, killing the surviving fighters, while still managing to fight each other to the death. There were situations when these reckless brave men shot at the emperor's box, in anticipation of killing the ruler who took their freedom from them. Attempts always ended in failure, but the memory of these exceptional feats gave hope to the gladiators and one day resulted in the glorified uprising of Spartacus.

were the most dangerous gladiators - loners of Rome, with their special sharpened shields and gladiuses, they inflicted cutting wounds on their rivals. Perfect possession of any melee weapon, as well as good physical fitness, allowed the warriors to strike at their rivals in any position. The Sixsors also fought with horse gladiators, they hit the horse and killed with the gladius the riders who were knocked down by their own horse.

came out for a duel only against provocateurs. They themselves could challenge an opponent in order to strengthen their position by defeating a more popular opponent, or to settle conflicts between two gladiatorial schools that competed with each other. Provocateurs armed themselves in the clothes of Roman legionnaires, wore a rectangular shield, cuirass and helmet.

Samnites like retiarii were an early form of gladiators. They were prisoners of war from the region of Samnium. Roman soldiers, having defeated the Samnites, forced them to participate in amusing battles, which later turned into gladiatorial battles. The Samnites dressed in military uniform and fought with the help of a sword and a rectangular shield. Their enemies were captured soldiers from the territories defeated by Rome. Later, when Samnium became a province of the Roman Empire, the Samnites ceased to be classified as a separate species and were attached to the Hoplomaches and Murmillons, who fought with similar weapons.

they hardly put on armor and went out to fight with a bare torso and without using a helmet, so that it could be seen that a woman was fighting. They were armed with light swords and small shields. Fights involving female gladiators were rare, and were accepted by the public as a novelty. Women competed with each other and, on rare occasions, with dwarfs, which shocked the crowd. Women's gladiator fights were always accompanied by scandals and were soon banned.

Naumachians considered the gladiatorial elite and took part in sea battles. Due to the fact that not all arenas could be filled with water, such performances were very rare. The naumacharii emerged armed with heavy spears, short swords, and grappling hooks. In battles on the water, various historical battles were usually reconstructed, but the outcome of the battle did not always correspond to reality.

Rudiaria there were the most experienced warriors who deserved freedom for their merits, but decided to remain in the gladiatorial craft. As a symbol of freedom, they received a wooden sword. Rudiarii could become trainers, judges, or remain fighters. The audience adored them, so every appearance of the rudiarium promised a real show.

Pregenaries came out before the start of the competition to warm up the crowd. They fought with wooden swords without any armor.

Tertiarii- exhibited to replace the previously declared gladiator, in cases where he could not come out. Also sometimes there were three gladiators in the arena. The first two fought against each other, and the third fought with the winner.

All these fearless wars certainly deserve respect and the legends about them will not die for a long time.

On one wall in Pompeii, you can read the words: "Celadus the Thracian - the hero of girls, making hearts beat." These words, which have come down to us through the centuries, are silent witnesses to the charm that still captivates our imagination. The afternoon sun illuminates the arena of the amphitheater, where the Thracian Celadus and other gladiators fight. They do not fight fearsome legionnaires or barbarian hordes. They kill each other for the pleasure of the public.

In the beginning, gladiators were prisoners of war and those sentenced to death. Laws ancient rome allowed them to participate in gladiator fights. In case of victory (with the money received), it was possible to redeem one's life. But not all gladiators were slaves or criminals. Among them were volunteers who were willing to risk their lives for thrill or fame. Their names were written on the walls, respectable citizens talked about them. For almost 600 years, the arena was one of the most popular entertainments in the Roman world. Almost no one opposed this spectacle. Everyone, from Caesar to the last plebeian, wanted to see bloodshed.

It is widely believed that gladiator fights were inspired by Etruscan funeral rituals. Nevertheless, it is known that at the funeral of Brutus Perus in 264 BC. Three duels of gladiators took place. This incident was recorded by the Greek-Syrian historian Nicholas of Damascus, who lived during the period of Emperor Augustus. Over the next hundred years, the custom of arranging battles between slaves at funerals spread. In 174 BC Titus Flamininus held munera - three-day fights, during which 74 gladiators fought.

They tried to celebrate Munera in December, at the same time as Saturnalia. As you know, Saturn was a deity "responsible" for self-sacrifice. At the same time, the muners were not just a number in the commemoration program. They also practiced fights with animals - venations. Various wild animals brought from all over the empire were killed by specially trained fighters - venators. Venice served as a symbol of the subjugation of wild animals by Roman power. Fights involving lions, tigers and other dangerous predators showed that the power of Rome embraced not only people but also animals. Any culture that was not part of Rome was declared barbarian, the only purpose of which was to wait until it was conquered by Rome.

As more and more wealthy people became convinced that gladiator fights were an excellent way to immortalize the memory of the deceased, they more and more often included in their will a requirement to hold such a fight at their wake. Soon, a simple fight of several pairs of gladiators became boring to the public. In order to impress the people, it was necessary to arrange grandiose spectacles according to the number of fighters or according to the method of battle. Gradually, the munera became more spectacular and expensive. The fighters began to be equipped with armor, while the style of the armor often copied the style of any of the peoples conquered by Rome. Thus, the munera became a demonstration of the power of Rome.

Over time, the munera became so customary that a person who did not bequeath to arrange a battle after his death risked discrediting his name after death as a miser. Many hosted games in honor of their deceased ancestors. The public expected another fight after the death of one of the wealthy citizens. Suetonius described the case that in Pollentia (modern Pollenzo, near Turin), the public did not allow a former centurion to be buried until the heirs organized a battle. Moreover, it was not a simple disorder in the city, but a real rebellion that forced Tiberius to send troops into the city. One dead man in his will ordered to arrange a fight between his former homosexual lovers. Since all the lovers were young boys, it was decided to annul this clause of the will. Munera eventually developed into true gladiator fights, usually held in purpose-built arenas. The first arenas were built in the form of amphitheaters around the Romanum Forum. The stands were wooden, and the arena itself was covered with sand. Sand in Latin will be garena, hence the name of the entire structure.

The amphitheater built by Flavius, known as the Colosseum, was the first stone building of its kind. The floor of the arena was at first sandy, but then it was rebuilt, organizing a network of underground passages under it - hypogees. Various mechanical devices were located in the passages, facilitating a quick change of scenery in the arena. With the help of these moves, animals and gladiators were also released onto the stage.

Entering the amphitheater, the audience could buy various souvenirs. Bone or clay tessera plates served as entrance tickets. Tessers were distributed for free a few weeks before the start of the fighting. The audience was seated in their places by special ministers - locaria.

For wealthy citizens there were seated stands. There were standing stands for the plebs. The Colosseum also had a gallery where the poorest spectators gathered. It was a matter of honor to occupy a place proper to its status.

The tunnels leading to the stands were run by various "entrepreneurs" from food vendors to prostitutes. As the program progressed, the public's excitement grew. Classical writers describe the roar of the excited crowd as "the roar of a storm". Vendors also crowded the stands among the spectators, offering food, flags, and lists of gladiators. Betting was made on these lists. Ovid says that asking a neighbor to read a program was considered a plausible pretext for getting to know a girl. However, under Augustus, separate places were allocated for women. The front rows were occupied by senators, soldiers, married men, as well as students and teachers. The women were placed in the upper ranks.

The shape of the amphitheater reflected heat inward and sound outward. Any sound made by a gladiator was clearly audible in the stands, even in the very top rows. Hence the rule arose that gladiators should not make unnecessary cries and be silent even in case of injury. Even in the worst places, the spectators had a great view of the arena.

By the end of the II century BC. the battles that lasted several days in a row with the participation of more than one hundred gladiators did not surprise anyone. There were also people for whom the maintenance and training of gladiators became a profession. They were called Lanists. Often they were former gladiators themselves. The social status of the lanist was low, they were despised for making money on the death of other people, while remaining completely safe themselves. If gladiators were compared to prostitutes, then lanists can be compared to pimps. To give themselves a little respectability, the Lanists called themselves "negociator surname gladiatore", which in modern language can be translated as "commercial director of the gladiatorial troupe." The essence of their activity was that they found physically strong slaves in the slave markets, and preferably prisoners of war and even criminals, ransomed them, taught them all the tricks necessary for performing in the arena, and then rented them out to everyone who wanted to arrange gladiator fights.

Entering the ring, the gladiators had to proclaim: Ave Ceasar, morituri te salutant! - Those who go to death greet you, Caesar! According to tradition, before the start of the fight, gladiator fighters were divided into pairs and the first demonstration fight began - prolusio, its participants did not fight for real, their weapons were wooden, the movements were more like a dance than the fight was accompanied by a lute or flute. At the end of the "lyrical introduction", the horn blew and announced that the first real battle was about to begin. Gladiators who changed their minds to fight were beaten, and sometimes even killed with whips.

Junior gladiators entered the battle in pairs, determined by lot. The weapons of the gladiators were demonstrated to the public in order to convince everyone that they were combat weapons. The determined couples dispersed around the arena to the sound of trumpets and the battle began. In the arena, in addition to the fighters, there were doctors who gave commands to the fighters, directing the course of the battles. In addition, slaves with whips and sticks stood ready to “cheer up” one of the gladiators who for some reason refused to fight in full force. After the duel of inexperienced gladiators, the best fighters entered the arena.

If any of the gladiators received a serious wound and could not continue the fight, he raised his hand, showing surrender. From that moment on, his fate depended on the opinion of the audience. The defeated could be spared as a worthy fighter, or they could be doomed to death as a coward and clumsy. Until recently, it was believed that the audience expressed their attitude towards the vanquished with the help of thumb. If the finger is pointing up - spare, if down - finish off. Recent studies have shown that the opposite was true. A raised finger meant "put it on the blade", and lowered - "a weapon in the ground." Given the fact that not very skilled gladiators were the first to perform, the fate of the vanquished was a foregone conclusion. The corpses of gladiators were removed from the arena using wheeled carts. The slaves removed the armor from the dead. These slaves had their own small informal "business". They collected the blood of slain gladiators and sold it to epileptics as the best remedy for their illness. After the duel of inexperienced gladiators, the best fighters entered the arena.

In spectacular battles, when people fought with animals, the duel was considered over only if one of the opponents was killed: a man by a beast or a beast by a man.

Gladiators were at the lowest rung of the social ladder, and after the uprising of Spartacus, the attitude towards gladiators became especially wary. Soldiers and guards watched the gladiators, stopping attempts of disobedience or suicide. Prisoners of war sent to the gladiatorial school wore slave collars and shackles that hindered movement. Volunteers, unlike slaves, did not wear chains. Free people, unlike slaves, did not pose a threat to society. Freed slaves in their status approached free citizens. Petronius the Arbiter, in his Satyricon, extols the virtues of a traveling band of gladiators, saying: “The three-day show is the best I have ever seen. These were not ordinary grunts, but for the most part free people.

Sometimes offspring of noble families also got into the arena. Petronius the Arbiter mentions a woman from a senatorial family who became a female gladiator. Lucian of Samosata, who hated gladiator fights, tells of Sisinnius, a man who decided to join the gladiators in order to win 10,000 drachmas and pay a ransom for his friend.

Some people went into gladiators out of a desire for a thrill. Even emperors pecked at this bait. Emperor Commodus (180-192 AD) was a fan of gladiator fights since childhood. This made it possible for the political opponents of his father - Marcus Aurelius - to say that the emperor's wife survived the young heir from the gladiator. One way or another, Commodus spent almost all his time with gladiators. As an adult, he began to participate in battles as a secutor. By the time of his death, Commodus had managed to win more than 700 fights, but Commodus's contemporary Victor notes that the emperor's opponents were armed with lead weapons.

The bulk of the professional arena fighters were from gladiatorial schools. During the reign of Octavian Augustus (about 10 BC), there were 4 imperial schools in Rome: Great, Morning, where bestiaries were trained - gladiators who fought with wild animals, the Gallic school and the Dacian school. While studying at the school, all gladiators were well fed and qualifiedly treated. An example of this is the fact that the famous ancient Roman physician Galen worked for a long time at the Great Imperial School.

The gladiators slept in pairs in small closets with an area of ​​4-6 sq.m. The workouts, which lasted from morning to evening, were very intense. Under the guidance of a teacher former gladiator, beginners were trained in fencing. Each of them was given a wooden sword and a shield woven from willow. The chaotic ringing of metal evoked anguish in the audience, so the instructors trained the gladiators to fight not only spectacularly, but also effectively. In the Roman army, it was customary for beginners to practice on wooden palus poles 1.7 m high. In gladiator schools, they preferred to use stuffed stuffed with straw, which gave a more visual representation of the enemy. To strengthen the muscles, the next iron training weapon after the wooden one was specially made 2 times heavier than the combat weapon.

When a beginner has mastered the basics martial art, he, depending on his abilities and physical fitness, was distributed into specialized groups of one type or another of gladiators. The least capable students fell into the indabats. They were armed with only two daggers, without any additional protection, completed this equipment with a helmet with two holes that did not match the eyes at all. Therefore, the indabats were forced to fight each other almost blindly, brandishing their weapons at random. The attendants "helped" them, pushing them from behind with red-hot iron rods. The public always had a lot of fun looking at the unfortunate, and this part of the gladiatorial fights was considered by the Romans to be the most amusing.

Gladiators, like Roman soldiers, had their own charter, some historians call it a code of honor, but in fact this is a conventional name. because initially, a gladiator, by definition, was not a free person, and Roman slaves had no concept of honor as such. When a person got into a gladiatorial school, especially if before that he was free, he needed to perform a number of actions, in many ways purely formal, of course, in order to be legally considered a gladiator. Gladiators took an oath and took an oath similar to a military one, according to which they were supposed to be considered “formally dead” and transferred their lives to the property of the gladiatorial school in which they lived, studied, trained and died.

There were a number of unspoken rules and conventions that every gladiator had to adhere to and not violate them under any circumstances. The gladiator always had to remain silent during the duel - the only way he could contact the public was through gestures. The second unspoken item was the observance of certain "rules" of dignity, which can be compared with the rules of the samurai. A fighter - a gladiator had no right to cowardice and fear of death. If a fighter felt that he was dying, he had to open his face to the enemy so that he would finish him off, looking at his eyes, or cut his own throat, removing his helmet and opening his face and eyes to the audience, and they should have seen what was in them there is not an iota of fear. The third law was that the gladiator could not choose his own opponent, obviously, this was done so that the fighters in the arena did not settle their personal scores and grievances. Entering the arena, the gladiator did not know to the last with whom he would have to fight.

Among the Roman aristocrats, it was fashionable to have their own personal gladiators, who not only earned the owner money by performing, but also served as personal guards, which was extremely relevant during the civil unrest of the late Republic. In this respect, Julius Caesar outdid everyone, who at one time contained up to 2 thousand gladiator bodyguards, who made up a real army. It must be said that they became gladiators not only under the coercion of the slave owner or by a court sentence to the arena, but also absolutely voluntarily, in pursuit of fame and fortune.

Despite all the dangers of this profession, a simple but strong guy from the Roman social bottom really had a chance to get rich. And although the chances of dying on the blood-soaked sand of the arena were much greater, many took the risk. The most successful of them, in addition to the love of the Roman mob, and sometimes the Roman matrons, received solid cash prizes from fans and organizers of the fights, as well as interest on bets. In addition, Roman spectators often threw money, jewelry and other expensive trinkets into the arena to the especially beloved winner, which also accounted for a significant share of the income. Emperor Nero, for example, once gave the gladiator Spiculus a whole palace. And many of the famous fighters gave fencing lessons to everyone who wanted to, receiving a very decent fee for this.

However, luck in the arena smiled at very few - the audience wanted to see blood and death, so the gladiators had to fight seriously, bringing the crowd to a frenzy.

Catchers of animals worked tirelessly, devastating the Roman provinces in Africa and Asia, as well as adjacent territories. Thousands of professionals were engaged in this extremely dangerous, but equally profitable business. In addition to the fighting people, hundreds and thousands of lions, tigers, wolves, leopards, bears, panthers, wild boars, wild bulls, bison, elephants, hippos, rhinos, antelopes, deer, giraffes, monkeys perished in the arenas. Once the catchers managed to bring even polar bears to Rome! Apparently, there were simply no impossible tasks for them.

All these animals were victims of bestiary gladiators. Their training was much longer than the classical gladiators. Pupils of the famous Morning School, which received such a name due to the fact that animal persecution took place in the morning, were taught not only the handling of weapons, but also training, and also introduced them to the characteristics and habits of different animals.

Ancient Roman trainers reached unprecedented heights in their art: bears walked on a tightrope, and lions placed a bestiary under the feet of a driven, but still alive hare, monkeys rode ferocious Hyrcanian hounds, and deer were harnessed to chariots. These amazing tricks were innumerable. But when the satiated crowd demanded blood, fearless venators appeared on the arena (from Latin wenator - hunter), who knew how to kill animals not only with various types of weapons, but also with bare hands. It was considered the highest chic among them to throw a cloak over the head of a lion or leopard, wrap it up, and then kill the beast with one blow of a sword or spear.

Gladiator fights were different. There were fights of single pairs, and sometimes several tens or even hundreds of pairs fought at the same time. Sometimes whole performances were played out in the arena, introduced into the practice of mass entertainment by Julius Caesar. So, in a matter of minutes, grandiose scenery was erected, depicting the walls of Carthage, and gladiators, dressed and armed, like legionnaires and Carthaginians, represented the assault on the city. Or a whole forest of freshly cut trees grew in the arena, and the gladiators depicted the attack of the Germans on the same legionnaires from an ambush. The fantasy of the directors of the ancient Roman shows knew no bounds.

And although it was extremely difficult to surprise the Romans with something, the emperor Claudius, who ruled in the middle of the 1st century, succeeded quite well. The naumachia (staging of a naval battle) embodied on his orders was of such a magnitude that it turned out to be capable of capturing the imagination of all the inhabitants of the Eternal City, young and old. Although naumachia were arranged quite rarely, as they were very expensive even for emperors and required careful development.

The first Naumachia was held in 46 BC. Julius Caesar. Then, a huge artificial lake was dug out on the Field of Mars in Rome to conduct a naval battle. This performance was attended by 16 galleys, on which there were 4,000 rowers and 2,000 gladiator soldiers. It seemed that it was no longer possible to arrange a larger spectacle, but in 2 BC. the first Roman emperor Octavian Augustus, after a year of preparation, presented the Romans with naumachia with the participation of 24 ships and 3 thousand soldiers, not counting the rowers, who played out the battle between the Greeks and the Persians at Salamis.

Only the aforementioned emperor Claudius managed to break this record. For the naumachia conceived by him, Futsin Lake, located 80 kilometers from Rome, was chosen. No other nearby body of water simply could accommodate 50 real combat triremes and biremes, the crews of which amounted to 20,000 criminals sentenced to the arena. To do this, Claudius devastated all city prisons, putting on ships everyone who could carry weapons.

And in order to discourage so many criminals gathered in one place from organizing a rebellion, the lake was surrounded by troops. The naval battle took place in that part of the lake where the hills formed a natural amphitheatre. There was no shortage of spectators: about 500 thousand people - almost the entire adult population of Rome, settled down on the slopes.

The ships, divided into two fleets, depicted the confrontation between the Rhodians and the Sicilians. The battle, which began at about 10 am, ended only at four o'clock in the afternoon, when the last "Sicilian" ship surrendered. The Roman historian Tacitus wrote: "The morale of the fighting criminals was not inferior to the morale of real warriors." The waters of the lake were red with blood, not to mention the wounded, only more than 3 thousand people were killed. After the battle, Claudius pardoned all the survivors, with the exception of a few crews who, in his opinion, evaded the battle. The audience was absolutely delighted with what they saw. None of the subsequent emperors managed to “outplay” Claudius. It is no coincidence that literally the whole city mourned his death, because he, like no other, perhaps with the exception of Nero, knew how to entertain the public. And although during his reign Claudius showed himself to be far from being a brilliant statesman, this did not prevent him from being perhaps the most revered emperor among the people.

It happened that the fight dragged on, and both wounded gladiators could not defeat each other for a long time. Then the audience could stop the fight themselves and demand from the editor - the organizer of the games - to let both fighters out of the arena. And the editor obeyed the "voice of the people." The same thing happened if the gladiator so pleased the public with his skill and courage that she demanded the immediate delivery of a wooden training sword - rudis - to him as a symbol of complete liberation not only from fights in the arena, but also from slavery. Of course, this concerned only prisoners of war and slaves, but not volunteers.

The name of the gladiator Flamma has survived to this day, during whose career admiring spectators demanded a wooden sword four times, and he refused all four times! It is possible that Flamma showed such unheard of stubbornness in the pursuit of fame and money. One way or another, but he succeeded, he left the arena voluntarily, more or less unharmed, and in a fairly adulthood and being the owner of a decent fortune.

Gladiator fights were not alien to the most educated people of that time. Cicero, for example, assessed these games as follows: “It is useful for people to see that slaves can fight courageously. If even a simple slave can show courage, then what should the Romans be like? In addition, the games accustom a warlike people to the sight of murder and prepare them for war. Pliny, Tacitus and many other prominent Roman writers and thinkers were ardent admirers of gladiatorial spectacles. The only exception was, perhaps, the philosopher Seneca, who in every possible way advocated for their prohibition, which not least led to his forced suicide on the orders of his crowned pupil Nero.

Nearly all Roman emperors sought to outdo each other in grandiosity in order to win the love of the crowd. Emperor Titus Flavius ​​at the opening of the Colosseum, which accommodated up to 80 thousand spectators and immediately became the main arena of Ancient Rome, ordered to kill in various ways 17 thousand Jews who had worked on its construction for ten years. Emperor Domitian, being a virtuoso in archery, loved to amuse the audience by hitting the head of a lion or a bear with arrows so that the arrows seemed to become horns for them. And naturally horned animals - deer, bulls, bison, and so on, he killed with a shot in the eye. I must say that the Roman people loved this ruler very much.

Met among the Roman emperors and merry fellows. With the name of Galliena, for example, is connected very funny story. One jeweler, who sold counterfeit gems and was sentenced to the arena for this, was driven out by the bestiaries to the middle of the arena and placed in front of a closed lion's cage. The unfortunate man, with bated breath, was waiting for an inevitable and, moreover, terrible death, and then the cage door swung open, and a chicken came out of it. Unable to withstand the stress, the jeweler fainted. When the audience laughed enough, Gallienus ordered to announce: "This man was deceiving, therefore he was deceived." Then the jeweler was brought to his senses and released on all four sides.

By the beginning of the 4th century, gladiator fights and animal baiting began to gradually decline. It was a time when the once Great Roman Empire began to literally languish under the blows of numerous "barbarian" tribes. The situation was aggravated by the ongoing economic crisis - the Romans themselves practically did not work, and imported goods were constantly rising in price. Therefore, the Roman emperors of that period had enough worries, in addition to the arrangement of expensive games. And yet, they continued, although already without the former scope. Finally, gladiator fights were banned 72 years before the fall of the Roman Empire.

Initially, gladiators were people sentenced to death, who had nothing to lose. The statutes of ancient Rome made it possible to fight for freedom and, in case of victory, it was possible to exchange life for finances gained in battle. Then ordinary people who desperately wanted to achieve fame and material well-being joined the gladiator fights. In order to get into the number of fighters, they had to take an oath and become "legally dead." Each person who decided on this was fed high-calorie food free of charge and provided timely treatment. Sponsors of the fights spent a lot of money on the maintenance of gladiators, so it was often very expensive at the show where the fight was fought. There are cases when bloody gladiatorial battles of women were arranged.

gladiator schools

In ancient Rome, there were even special institutions in which gladiators were trained in combat. They could belong to both the state and a private person. The manager of such an institution was called "lanista". In his submission was a staff of teachers teaching fighters fencing, gunsmithing, as well as cooks, doctors and even a funeral team. The daily routine and discipline at the gladiator school were extremely strict.

In some of these institutions, fighting with wild animals was also taught. Such fighters were trained much longer. They were trained in training, habits various kinds animals. Elephants, lions, tigers, bears, panthers, leopards died in the ring along with people.

Classification of gladiators

Ancient Rome was full of gladiator fights, which were first held during church holidays, and then became an integral part of almost everyday entertainment of citizens. There was even a classification of fighters by specialization.

1. Andabats - gladiators who fought on the principle of cavalry competitions, without the right to see an opponent.

2. Bestiaries were originally criminals sentenced to fight with animals. The convicts actually had no chance to survive. Subsequently, these gladiators began to be trained. Armed with darts or, fighters began to often win in such fights.

3. Bustari - gladiators who fought in memory of those who died at ceremonial games.

4. Velites - pedestrian gladiators who fought with darts, a small dagger and a shield.

5. Venators were not gladiators, but were present at every battle. Entertained the audience, using animals. They did tricks: put their hands in the mouth of a lion, rode a camel.

6. Dimachers in the process of fighting had 2 swords with them. A helmet and shield were not allowed.

7. The Gauls were armed with a spear, a small shield and a helmet.

8. Lakvearia. Their task was to catch the enemy with a lasso.

9. Murmillos. On the crest of their helmet was a stylized fish. They are armed with a short sword and a shield.

10. Noxii - criminals who were released to fight each other. Sometimes they were blindfolded, given this or that weapon. The judge or someone from the crowd was allowed to prompt the combatants. However, most often the audience shouted over the instructions and nothing was heard by the fighting.

11. Pregenaries. Speaking first, they "warmed up" the crowd. These gladiators wrapped their bodies in rags and used wooden swords.

12. Provocateurs - armed with gladiuses and gladiator shields, were the only ones who were allowed to protect the body with a cuirass.

13. Rudiarii - fighters who deserved freedom, but decided to remain in the ranks of the gladiators. Awarded with a wooden sword. They became coaches, judges or assistants.

14. Sagittarii fought on horseback, armed with a bow.

15. Scissors - fighters armed with weapons resembling scissors.

16. Tertiary - a substitute player who came on as a substitute if, for some reason, one of the gladiators could not participate in the battle. In other battles, tertiarii fought the winner of the main competition.

17. Equites spent the first half of the battle on horseback, and after the spear with which they were armed was thrown, they continued to fight on their feet with short swords.

18. Cestus - fighters who fought using only cestus - an old analogue of brass knuckles.

The tradition of gladiator fights in the territory of Ancient Rome has been preserved for more than half a millennium.